Leadership Flashcards
Leadership
Ability to influence others towards the achievement of a vision or set of goals.
Ability to influence outside the formal structure of the organisation.
Main difference between management and leadership is that management is concerned with organisational complexity and leadership is concerned with organisational change.
Trait Theories
Suggests that personal qualities and characteristics differentiate leaders from non-leaders.
Physical attributes influence leadership emergence and shape perceptions of leadership effectiveness.
Internal characteristics: extraversion, conscientiousness, openness, agreeableness, and emotional intelligence (empathy) are important key traits of leadership
- traits can predict leadership
- traits do a better job at predicting the emergence of leaders and the appearance of leadership than in distinguishing between effective and ineffective leaders
Behavioural Theories
Suggests that specific behaviours differentiate leaders from non-leaders.
Main premise: behaviour rather than traits determine the effectiveness and emergence of leadership
Two Factor Model: defined two categories of dimensions that substantially affect leadership behaviour
Ohio State studies
1. Consideration
- extent to which a leader might develop job relationship with subordinates
- these relationships are characterised by trust, respect, and regard for the ideas and the feelings of the subordinates
2. Initiating structure
- extent to which a leader might define and structure his/her own role and the roles subordinates to ensure goal attainment
Followers of leaders with high consideration were more motivated, satisfied with their jobs and had more respect for their leader. High initiating structure leader was more related to higher levels of group and organisation productivity and more positive performance evaluations.
University of Michigan studies
1. Employee-oriented
- focuses on interpersonal relationships
- leaders take a personal interest in the needs of employees and accept individual differences
2. Production oriented
- focuses on technical aspects of the job
- interested in fulfilling their group’s tasks
Employee-oriented leaders increase the levels of group productivity and job satisfaction of their subordinates.
Contingency Theories
Suggest that there are situational conditions that might affect the effectiveness of leadership.
Fielder model: proposes that effective group performance depends on the proper match between leader’s style and the degree to which the situation gives control to the leader
- identifying leadership style: key factor in leadership success is the individual’s leadership style, uses ‘least preferred co-worker questionnaire (LPC)’ which measures whether a person is task or relationship oriented
- defining the situation
1. leader-member relations: degree of confidence, trust and respect members have in their leader
2. task structure: degree to which the job assignments are structured and clear
3. position power: degree of influence a leader has over power variables such as hiring, discipline, salary changes etc. - matching leaders and situations: either find the right one, change the leader to fit the situation or change the situation to fit the leader
Situational Theory
Indicates that the effectiveness of leadership is determined by the readiness of followers to fulfil a job task.
Readiness: extent to which people are able and willing to accomplish a specific task
Four different types of leadership behaviour are defined.
1. when followers are unable and unwilling to fulfil a task, leader need to give clear and specific directions
2. when followers are unable and willing, the leader needs to show high task orientation
3. when followers are able and unwilling, the leader should use a supportive and participating leadership style
4. when followers are able and willing, the leader doesn’t need to do much
Path-Goal Theory
States that it is the leader’s job to assist followers in attaining their goals and provide the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organisation.
Leaders are responsible for providing sufficient information, support, and other needed resources to their followers.
Four different types of leadership behaviours.
1. Directive leaders let followers know what is expected of them and provide extensive guidance to accomplish goals.
2. Supportive leaders are friendly and interested in the needs of followers.
3. Participative leaders consult their followers and use their suggestions before making decisions,
4. Achievement-oriented leaders set challenging goals and expect high job performance from their followers
Leader Participation Theory/Model
There are rules that determine the level of participative decision-making under different circumstances.
Autocratic style: leader makes the decision and doesn’t consult with employees
Consultive style: leader makes final decision but discusses with employees for opinions
Facilitative style: seek consensus on solution
Delegate style: leader gives employee or group of employees responsibility with some specific conditions
Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
Indicates that leaders tend to create in-groups and out-groups. Due to time pressures, leaders establish a special relationship with a small number of their followers.
Employees that are part of the in-group enjoy high performance ratings and increased levels of job satisfaction.
Employees that are part of the out-group do not.
Heroic Leadership
Charismatic Leadership Theory
- followers attribute heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe behaviours and tend to give these leaders power
Main characteristics of charismatic leaders are:
- have a vision
- sensitive to follower’s needs
- exhibit behaviours that are not ordinary and are willing to take risks
Some individuals are born with specific traits that make them charismatic while others can be trained. First, a person must be optimistic and second, they draw others in by inspiring them to follow.
Process of influencing followers consists of 4 steps:
1. Articulation of a vision
- the inspirational possibilities of a vision are value centred, realisable, and have superior imagery and articulation
2. Vision statement
- formal articulation of an organisation’s vision or mission
3. Convey new set of values
- use his/her behaviour to create an example for followers to imitate
4. Emotional appeals and unconventional behaviour
- demonstrate courage and convictions about the vision
Charismatic leadership depend on situation
- dependent on the level in the organisation
- more receptive during sense of crisis
Disadvantages:
- sometimes leaders do not act in the best interests of the organisations and allow their personal goals to overrun those of the organisation
- sometimes depends on the leaders vision, not the situation
Transformational Leadership
Transactional leaders whom guide or motivate their followers, on the basis of established goals, by defining role and task requirements.
Transformational leaders inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests and focus on organisational goals and have extraordinary effect on their followers.
These two types of leadership complement each other.
Transformational leadership builds upon transactional leadership, while transactional leadership can’t build upon transformational.
Transformational leaders outperform transactional leaders, since they are more creative and inspire their followers to be more creative as well. In general, transactional leadership is consistent with low turn over rates, high levels of productivity, low level of employee stress and higher employee satisfaction.
Authentic Leadership
Authentic leaders are aware of their values and beliefs and act on those values and beliefs openly and candidly.
- followers characterise them as ethical people
- primary quality is trust
- unethical leaders serve their own interests and use their charisma to enhance power over followers and to direct the behaviour of others
Socialised charismatic leadership: leadership framework that indicates that the values of leaders who model ethical conduct are other-centred rather than self-centred
Trust is displayed when there is a positive expectation that another will not act opportunistically. It takes time to develop trust and several key dimensions underlie the concept of trust: integrity, competence, consistency, loyalty and openness
Servant Leadership
Leadership style marked by going beyond the leader’s own self-interest and instead focusing on opportunities to help followers grow and develop.
- they use persuasion instead of iron fist of power
- considered favourable among employees because they are treated with respect
- leads to higher group and creative performance
Trust
Psychological state that exists when you agree to make yourself vulnerable to another because you have positive expectations about how things are going to turn out.
- primarily associated with leadership because breaking it will have serious consequences on the group’s performance
Factors that develop trust
- integrity: employees have a higher level of trust with a leader with integrity
- benevolence: employees trust a leader who takes all their best interests to his/her heart
- ability: employees will trust a leader who is well qualified and knows what he/she is doing because of their knowledge
Self-Leadership
Set of processes though which an individual can control his/her own behaviour.
Based on assumption that people are responsible, capable and able to exercise initiative without external constraints.
Mentoring
Mentor is a senior employee who sponsors and supports a less-experienced employee.
Many leaders undertake this role, and usually select proteges who share similar personal characteristics. Beneficial for both the mentor and proteges. Formal relationships less effective than informal relationships.
Leadership as an Attribution
Attribution theory of leadership states that leadership is merely an attribution that people make about other individuals.
Suggests what’s important is projecting the appearance of being a leader rather than focusing on actual accomplishments.
Substitutes and Neutralisers of Leadership
Neutraliser make it impossible for leadership behaviour to make any difference to follower outcomes.
Substitutes make the influence of leadership behaviour not only impossible, but also unnecessary.
Finding and Creating Effective Leaders
Organisations should consider the specific requirements of jobs to find effective leaders.
- should use personality tests, level of emotional intelligence and interviews to determine if a person is appropriate for a position
- might offer training programs but not all people are equally trainable
- leadership training is usually more successful with high-self monitors, who can easily modify their behaviour.
Power
Ability to influence the behaviour of others to get what you want.
Ability to get things done the way one wants them to be done.
Difference Between Power and Leadership
First difference is the goal compatibility. Power does not require goal compatibility, merely dependence. However leadership requires some congruence between the goals of the leader and those being led.
Second difference is the direction of influence. Leadership focuses on the downward influence on one’s follower. It minimises the importance of lateral and upward influence pattern. Power does not.
Formal Power
Based on an individual’s position in an organisation.
- can come from coercive, reward, or formal authority.
Coercive Power
Ability to take something away or punish someone for noncompliance.
- often works through fear and it forces people to do something that ordinarily they would not choose to do
Reward Power
Ability to grant a reward, such as promotion.
- tends to accompany legitimate power and is the highest when the reward is scarce.
Legitimate Power
Power that comes from one’s organisational role or position.
- others comply with the requests because they accept the legitimacy of the position, whether they like or agree with the request or not
Personal Power
Power that comes from individual’s unique characteristics.
- two bases of personal power, expert and referent
Expert Power
Power that comes from expertise, knowledge and skill.
Referent Power
Based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits.
- often called charisma
Dependency and Power
Dependency is directly related to power. The more that person is dependent on you, the more power you have over them.
Dependency is power that a person gains from their ability to handle actual or potential problems facing the organisation.
What creates dependency?
- dependency is increased when the resources you control is important, scarce, and non-substitutional
Importance
- refers to the value of the resource
- if the resources or skills you control are vital to the organisation, you will gain power
Scarcity
- refers to the uniqueness of a resource
- the more difficult something is to obtain, the more valuable it tends to be
Substitutability
- refers to one’s ability to find another option that works as well as the one offered
Power Tactics
9 distinct influence tactics.
- Rational persuasion
- using facts, data, and logical argument to try to convince others that your point of view is the best alternative
- effective in upward influence - Inspirational appeals
- seek to tap into our values, emotions, and beliefs to gain support for a request or course of action - Consultation
- increasing the target’s support by involving him or her in deciding how you will accomplish your plan - Ingratiation
- using flattery, praise or friendly behaviour prior to making a request - Personal appeal
- asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty - Exchange
- rewarding the target with benefits or favours in exchange for following a request - Coalition
- group of individuals working together toward a common goal to influence others - Pressure
- using warnings, repeated demands and threats - Legitimacy
- relying on one’s authority position or stressing that a request is in accordance with organisational policies or rules
Response to influence include resistance, compliance, or commitment.
- resistance: influence target does not wish to comply
- compliance: when the target does not necessarily want to obey, but they do
commitment: target not only agrees to the request but also actively supports as well
