Leadership Flashcards
1
Q
What is the trait theory?
A
- Assumption that leadership is determined by personal traits that not everyone has
- “trait” = unchanging and stable personality attributes
- specific attributes predispose particular individuals becoming leaders
2
Q
What are examples of different trait theory school of thoughts?
A
1 Sanskrit literatures: 10 types of leaders with examples from history and mythology
2 Aristocrats: leadership is a certain mentality characterised by subordination of individual goals to fundamental principles that guarantee stability and strength; performance and success are conditions
3 Monarchy: Divine right and elite membership
4 Meritocracy: Leadership through accomplishment; Alexander the great
5 Autocratic/Paternal: leader is head of family model “pater familias” makes all decisions
6 Maternal Leadership: Empathy and focus on emotional well-being
7 Confucianism: Ideas of correct living; student-leader relationship; leadership based on virtues of wisdom, integrity, benevolence, courage, and discipline
3
Q
Describe the leadership model of Carlyle and Galton.
A
- talent, skills and physical traits of men of power
- leadership attributes from families of most powerful men in England
- conclusion that ability to lead is based on certain attributes, skills and talents which can be inherited
–> Leaders are born, not made
4
Q
Describe the leadership model of Stodgill and Mann.
A
- based on series of qualitative research to challenge notion of “leaders are born”
- comprehensive list of personal characteristics that are typical for leaders
- leaders in certain situations are not necessarily leaders in others
- shift towards behavioural patters in leadership
5
Q
Describe the leadership model of Lewin, Lipitt and White.
A
- Behavioural taxonomy to general leadership style
- influence of different leadership styles on performance
- authoritative leadership, democratic leadership and laissez-faire
6
Q
Describe behavioural leadership.
A
- different behavioural patters rather than individual traits are seen to create leadership conditions
- different leadership styles lead to vastly different outcomes
- successful leadership is not dependant on personal traits
- leading = situation-appropriate complex behaviour patters
7
Q
Describe Positive Reinforcement.
A
- B.F. Skinner
- behaviour modification through learning, developed the concept of positive reinforcement
- positive response follows a reaction to specific behaviour
- behaviour will likely be repeated in the future in anticipation of receiving this
- successful mgmt. style
- careful: with situations where employees are more specialised it can be seen as patronising
8
Q
Describe situational approaches in Leadership.
What is criticised about it?
A
- leadership is not distinguished by a permanent set of personality characteristics but an event to specific situation
- Any individual can be perceived as leader, depending on the situation and their responsibilities. Individuals will respond to the leader as a result of situational demands and actions of the leader.
- Correlation between effective leadership and individual traits such as intelligence, attitude, extraversion, conscientiousness, openness and general self-efficacy. Situation will demand the expression of these traits = required for a leader
Critique:
- concentrates on few attributes: neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness and neglects cognitive skills:, motives, values, social competence, expertise, and problem solving
- do not consider behaviour patters
- do not differentiate between general attributes and attributes with situations
- do not take certain attributes and behaviour variations into account
9
Q
Describe situation and contingency theories in leadership.
Which prominent leadership theories are reflecting these considerations?
A
- situations influence people, not the other way around
- situation theory: different situations require different attributes –> there is not single optimal leadership technique nor a set of personal attributes
- leadership behaviour depends on situation
Authoritative: best in coping with crisis
Democratic: coping with teams, consensus situations
Laissez-Faire: ideation, freedom and flexible orgas
1 Fiedler’s contingency model
2 Vroom-Yetton decision model
3 Path-goal theory of leadership effectiveness
4 Blake-Mouton managerial grid model
10
Q
Describe Fiedler’s Contingency model.
A
Based on Situational and Contingency Theory
- interaction between leadership style and situational favourability
- two types of leaders:
1 those that tend to solve the task by developing a good relationship with the group (relationship-oriented)
2 those that focus on accomplishing the task (task-oriented)
- -> there is no ideal leader
- -> both are effective when it fits the situation
11
Q
Describe the Vroom-Yetton decision model.
A
Based on Situational and Contingency Theory.
- taxonomy to describe leadership styles that are determined by situation
- leadership behaviour should be based on a normative decision model which defines what approach is the most suitable to the situation
> Leader should decide how to lead their subordinates based on specific situational circumstances
12
Q
Describe the path-goal theory of leadership effectiveness.
A
Based on Situational and Contingency Theory
- by House based on Vroom-Yetton
- Leaders should influence their subordinates in such a way that they develop skills and abilities that complement the resolution of the situation and possible compensate for existing deficiencies in managing it
Four types of appropriate behaviour: 1 Achievement orientation 2 Directive leader behaviour 3 Participate leader behaviour 4 Supportive leader behaviour
! ! ! Sees leadership behavior as process that calls for different strategies dep situation
> leaders have to be able to use all four flexibly
contingency and transactional model that focuses on interaction between leader and employees
13
Q
Describe the Blake-Mouton managerial grid model.
A
Based on Situational and Contingency Theory
- Five different leadership styles that are based on factors of employee orientation and task orientation
- leader should be in 9.9 (high/high)
- extensive training problem was created to train people how to get there
- difficult to put into practice due to the length of time required to support employees and pressure to produce
14
Q
Describe the theory of functional leadership behaviour.
A
- assumption: managers are expected to behave in a way that facilitates orga efficiency
- success of the orga depends on the effectiveness and cohesion of the group
> leadership is an individual that strengthens the group cohesion and goal orientation and is separated from orga leadership (role clarity and insecurity reduction)
> leader is responsible to do whatever its group needs
two primary behaviours of managers:
1 testing existing structures
2 creating supportive structures that facilitate task fulfilment
15
Q
Describe the integrated psychological theory.
A
- Scouller (2011)
- Combines strengths of older theories (attribute, leadership style, situational, function) together
- expands these by adding: Ongoing personal development of the leaders
1 attribute theory - leader is born - are not useful for development of leaders
2 one ideal leadership style cannot be applied to all situations
3 most situational, contingency and functional theories assume that leaders are able to change their behaviour according to circumstances –> difficult in practice due to unconscious beliefs, fears, habits, etc.
> no older theories focus on trust, leadership presence, inspiring others, gaining trust, etc.
Three levels of leadership:
1 public ls
2 private ls
3 personal ls
Public/private = types of behaviour: four dimensions of leadership 1 a shared motivating group purpose 2 measures of progress and results 3 collective unity or team sprit 4 individual selection and motivation
Personal
- internal sate of an invidious can be developed to have a stronger leadership role, presence, know-how and aptitude
1 technical know-how and ability
2 developing correct attitude towards others
(foundation for authentic leadership)
> inner self-control is key towards trusting relationships
16
Q
What is transactional leadership?
What is transformational leadership?
A
Transactional:
- relationship between a group and its leader in relation to achieving objectives
- assigning tasks and rewards achievement for performance
- sanctions for non-performance
- focused on instruments of power =employees follow to reach objective
- MBO
Transformational:
- based on transactional with additional dimension
- admiration, trust, and respect shown towards the leader
- leaders are role models:
1 convey connection
2 challenge employees to think critically
3 coach them
4 encourage good performance
5 strive to align employee goals + orga goals
17
Q
Why is Leadership an emotionally charged process?
A
- leadership climate has significant impact on employees
1 mood of the individual employees are influenced by leaders and their attitude (“emotional infection”
2 affective tone of the group influences the mood of employees
3 group dynamic process resulting from mutual tasks, efforts and goals all influence feelings
> positive mood improves performance of the group
Leaders must create situations that lead to emotional reactions (feedback, assigning tasks, distributing resources)
Emotional reaction must be understood and handled correctly for the climate (emotional intelligence
18
Q
Describe the Neo-Emergent Theory.
A
- Oxford School of Leadership
- leadership mainly takes place through transmission or orga of information about leaders and their behaviour
- not really based on actual actions of leaders
e. g. American elections:
- based on political motivation
- highly edited press releases
- public is steered towards special emotional reactions
19
Q
Why are roles important for Leadership?
What are characteristics of roles?
A
- leadership cannot be understood by simply analysing attributes and actions of leaders
- leadership should be considered an event created in the interaction between individuals assuming the roles of leader and follower
- roles can be defined as the actual and tangible forms which the self takes - every role is a fusion of private and collective elements. Every role has a private and a collective side
1 Roles are specific
2 Roles are formed by the individual
3 Roles are the result of individual skill and the expectation of the group
20
Q
What are groups?
What is important as a result for managers?
A
- defined as communicative networks and conventionally some form of leadership
- common objective that connects and unifies members
- each member in group has an allocated task
- interaction patterns within a group evolve over time to clarify who does what when
- role can thus be considered a socially defined pattern that is expected of a group member
Important:
> roles in a group are independent of role-bearer, because what is expected of the role-bearer does not change, regardless of whom has undertaken the role
> difference between personal behaviour and role behaviour
21
Q
What functional roles exist?
A
1 Initiator: Suggests new direction, solution, procedure
2 Information seeker: questions new ideas, checks for validity and accuracy
3 Information giver: consults on expert opinions, facts, etc.
4 Opinion seeker: tries to find relevant values and beliefs to solve team task, focused on opinion instead of facts
5 Opinion giver: contributes values and beliefs
6 Evaluator: develops concepts, rate proposals for practicability, logic, etc.
7 Doer: does what the team assigned them
8 Internal rules and regulations practitioner: takes care of group necessities, follows procedure, etc.
9 Secretary: takes minutes, writes reports
22
Q
What are socio-emotional roles?
A
1 Encourager:
- gives others positive feedback
- praises, rewards, supports
2 Peacemaker:
- acts as diplomat and is responsible for consensus
- tries to reach agreement
3 Compromise maker:
- tries to defuse conflicts through compromises and avoidance
4 Tension appeaser:
- can spontaneously break the ice, facilitates friendly atmosphere
- can help others relax and diffuse tension
5 Confronter:
- proactive in preventing the team from conflicts
- opposes excessive coziness that impacts on performance
23
Q
What are destructive roles?
A
1 Chatter: takes long to say something
2 Pedant: always includes unimportant details
3 Inspiration producer: normally says the first good idea
4 Definer: fights tooth and nail about concepts
5 Fence sitter: does not want to and will not commit
6 Defeatist: constantly voices an uneasy feeling without constructive sugg.
7 Procrastinator: postpones everything till later when more facts are available
8 Troublemaker: chats so loudly that overall process is disturbed
9 Personalizer: takes everything personally and is offended
10 Manipulator: want to influence people with praise and flattery
11: dominator expects to get her way in everything
24
Q
What is important for managers about role types?
A
- functional, socio-emotional, destructive roles
- each individual can take on different roles or even several roles at a time
- depending on situation the contribution of all roles types should be acknowledged
- recognising different roles is a very big challenge for managers
- leaders are subject to different expectation as they correspond with different role types
> Focus Leadership: offset and unite the differences of the group members in their different roles and ensure no-one is frozen
role type and situational context go together
responding appropriately to different role patters and their demands, maintaining fairness between roles and respecting strengths and limitations
25
Describe the relationship between organisational structures and status structures.
Orga structures:
- rights and requirements are defined
- positions are associated with normative expectations that dictate preferred behaviour and attributes of role-bearer
Social structure:
- due to remuneration and influence differences
- co-existing with orga structure
- subject to different expectations
26
What different expectations in corporate contexts can be formulated?
1 must expectations: normally formulated as laws
2 should expectations: usually based on social norms within reference group
3 could expectations: extend beyond the actual requirements of the role
- expectations vary based on individuals social position
- expectations of specific roles are not uniformly defined throughout society
- role expectations and role patterns come with its formal orga structure
27
What are norms?
- behaviour regulating components of human society
- norms satisfy human needs and are created in social processes
- acceptable behaviour of members in group
> critical to understand norms as violations could result in actions ranging from written warning to dismissal of employee
> new colleagues are often compelled to the norms of the workplace which can prevent them from bringing in external know-how
28
What are the options regarding social norms for human beings?
1 compliance:
- enables the individual to improve her confidence in her own judgment and actions, enhances the cooperations and efficiency of the group, and gives rise to feelings of security and social identity
- motivation of individual to follow norm usually corresponds to acceptance in the group
2 violation:
- if norms are violated it is considered to be in crisis of legitimacy
29
What are sanctions?
- deviations from expected behavioural norms
- enforce adherence to behavioural strandads
- can be positive or negative
* punishing deviant behaviour or
* rewarding conforming behaviour (fulfilment of could expectations)
- negative sanctions are widespread from signals of disapproval to mockery, exclusion, etc.
- punishment has a paradoxical effect = more deviant behaviour
30
What is role pressure?
| What are possibilities to deal with it?
- expectations on role-bearer may result in role pressure
- role-bearer has to behave in a way that does not correspond with her personality, that she inwardly rejects or where the role expectations are too repressive
Possibilities to deal with it:
- manager can view this task as unimportant role requirement and ignore t he enforcement of dismissal
- manager can screen her actions from social visibility
- manager can delegate her role obligations to the HR department
- manager can show solidarity and possibly exert pressure on powers to reverse action
- manager can break off the role relationship
31
What is a role conflict?
| What types are there?
- if role experienced by a person conflicts with their self-perception, a person-role conflict arises
- person must take on different roles but behaviour is only based on the expectations of a single role
- role conflict cannot be avoided
Types:
Inter-sender conflict:
- manager is expected to be physically present at their workplace by her subordinates but is also expected by clients to make frequent visits to external sites
Intra-sender conflict:
- employer does not permit overtime but still requires that all tasks be finished according to strict deadlines
> decisions about which expectations to fulfil depends on:
- sanctions
- legitimacy
- balance
32
Describe sanction balance.
Sanction balance is basically the evaluation of whether violating a norm will lead to a serious punishment or not
- roles expectations and identity is defined by learning and negotiation of roles
- perception, experience and observation over time
- observing other managers and finding accordance with own identity
- the greater the sanction balance the better the willingness to work in that role
extrinsic consequences: stimulated by playing the role
intrinsic consequences: arising from the role itself
33
Describe role price.
- when considering a new role or considering changes to an existing role, managers must consider how much to invest in such a role
setting a role price depends on:
- factors of motivation: interest sufficient to generate high performance
- sanctions: high achievements are honoured?
- relationship: prestige gain?
34
Describe the theory of role balance.
| What's determining role balance?
- explain aspects of the decision to take on a role, either voluntarily or forced
Probability of taking on a role determined by:
* balance of social pressure to take on the role
* ability to perform the role
* discrepancy between benefits and costs
* ambiguity
* potential for conflict
* degree of identification
* previously held roles
35
Describe role identification.
- role balances determines to what extent an individual commits to the role
- individual loses himself in the role transferring this to others --> very positive
- not identifying with the role and under-performing
- role distance = extent to which an individual maintains a degree of removal between their self and their roles
36
What are the most important qualities employees want in a boss?
```
1 truthfulness and authenticity
2 competence in dealing with conflicts
3 enthusiasm
4 Ability to work under pressure
5 Assertiveness
6 Empathy
7 Expertise
```
37
Describe the leadership quality Truthfulness and Authenticity.
- constantly evaluated by employees and influences role balances
- authenticity: originality and uniqueness and the singularity of an individual
- being your true self
- self-contiousness, self-distance, self-awareness, self-assessment and self-reflection
Pre-requisits of authenticity are:
- connection with one's body (embodiment) as foundation for personal identity
- emotionality (affected and touched by experience)
- ability to make decisions and express one's own will, evaluations, etc.
- stable personality (unique, singular, distinct)
- actions the allow the individual to experience himself
```
Truthfulness = associated with honesty, dependability, and managing info with integrity
Credibility = characteristic attributed to the leader when employees experience truthfulness
```
38
What is trust and why is it important?
- means giving up control and is a condition occurring when somewhere between knowledge and ignorance
- risk-laden decision - risk of being disappointed, losing trust or bearing negative consequences
- violation of trust is very difficult to recover from
39
Describe the leadership quality Handling Conflicts.
| What is a conflict?
- conflict sustainment, escalation or resolution happens through behaviour, communication patterns, and various interpretations, assessments and explanations
- managers take all this into account exposing the conflict mechanism and proactively deal with the factors leading to escalation to maintain harmony
Conflict:
- common area of conflict
- different intended actions
- presence of negative feelings
- mutual attempts to influence or interfere with interpretations, explanations, evaluations of the other party
- conflicts differ from problems due to the negative emotional state associated with them, strong impulse to act and are irrational
40
How can a conflict be detected?
behaviour can be observed before conflict arises:
- increasingly unfriendly
- sarcastic comments
- avoid someone
- block important info
- sabotage decisions
- react with verbal aggression
Typical Signal in situations of conflict:
- aggression and hostility: verbal attacks, intentional mistakes, angry looks
- disintrest: turing out "work-to-rule" behaviour
- rejection and resistance: constant verbal and non-verbal contra
- unreasonableness and stubbornness: riding and bossy behaviour and unwillingness to change
- escape: avoiding interaction and elusive behaviour
- hyper-conformity: over-adapted behaviour and "fake" friendliness
41
How can conflicts be handled best?
- Employees expect managers to recognise signals and develop coping strategies suited to the conflict
- proactive conflict management
- working capacity of group is seriously jeopardised by emotionality of conflict
- managers with employees are expected to provide a realistic assessment of the situation and the team and create a win-win situation
42
What are conflicts in groups?
| Which typical conflict can occur?
- person does not agree with opinion or behaviour of the whole group
- pressure is placed on group
- people in hierarchy can feel their positions being challenged
- being able to constructively deal with objections
- if person in group does not speak out, this can cause an intra-personal conflict where an individual place the opinion of the collective above their own opinion
Typical conflict:
- relationship conflict: intrapersonal problem
- factual conflict: different notions about how to gain customers
- value conflict: different attitudes to work
- power conflict
- distribution conflict: who gets which advantages
> best way to deal with conflicts is not necessarily to prevent them but deal with them accordingly
> opposition is a form of conflict that is hidden and silent until it flares up
> resistance must be recognised and questioned before it rises up and causes real conflicts
43
What are conflict resolution patters according to Matzat?
- process that enables formal rational analysis by contrasting the unpleasant state with desirable state
- opposing parties look for all conceivable ways of reaching the desirable state and when possible solutions are chosen together
- final step is review, goal monitoring, and revision are implemented
44
What are phases in the conflict resolution procedure?
1 Perception of the unconformable state
Q: what is happening
A: using verbs and suitable nouns to describe current state NOT measure
2 Short-term goal that is comfortable. desirable state
Q: What should be happening?
A: describe goal NOT measure
3 Time planning
Q: how much time is available for each phase?
A: determine percentages of time on each phase
4 Cause analysis
Q: Why is it like this
A: list reasons for the state described
```
5 Tasks (eliminate the cause OR brainstorm measures)
Q: What do I have to do? What does my counterpart need to do?
A: list conceivable measures not possible measures
```
6 Goal
Q: What for? Not why
A: describe the highest common goal the these measures could lead to
7 Conditions
Q: What do I need? What do I have? Gap
A: what needs to happen, what has happened, etc.
8 Limitations
Q: what I am not allowed to do?
A: are measures acceptable?
9 Feasibility check
A: check planned measures
10 alternatives
Q: alternatives conceivable
A: how big is the advantage
11 Decision
A: best solution and least bad solution
12 Feasibility planning
Q: Who should do what, when, where, how, how long, until when?
13 Execution
Q: are you ready
A: act
14 Review
15 Goal check
16 cause analysis
Q: why did I achieve the result?
A: explain why you have achieved it
17 Revision
Q: what will I continue to do?
A: describe what needs to continue
18 Documentation and presentation of approach
45
Describe the leadership quality Enthusiasm.
- refers to elation or rapture for something, increased pleasure for certain topics or actions, extreme commitment to a cause or intense interest in a field
- personal competence (life satisfaction does not depend on others, status symbols or materialistic incentives)
- sense of self:
* reading one's own emotions
* recognising relationship between emotions and what one might think, do, say
* being aware of strengths and weaknesses
* self-control and motivation not to lose sight of goal
> enthusiasm of manager leads to reciprocated effect in employees (better organisation, optimisation and development of personal competences)
46
What are special behavioural patters of enthusiastic leaders?
```
1 they are cooperative
2 they pass on info
3 they are communicative
4 they have self control
5 they are able to manage themselves
6 they set good examples
7 they have the ability to listen
8 they are good judges of character
9 they give employees room to develop
10 they identify with mission of the orga
11 the are capable of making decisions
12 they provide purpose (vision) to allow future development
```
47
What are typical pressures on managers?
| What is the implication for managers?
1 Pressure from work tasks
- intense concentration to understand and analyse incomplete info
- decision pressure
- responsibility pressure
- highly fragmented tasks
- unforeseen work interruptions
2 Pressure from work roles
- sandwiched between roles
- conflict and difficult transitions between prof and non-prof roles
- conflict of values
- time pressure
- high workload
- lack of info
- lack of feedback
3 Pressure from working hours
- long working hours
- working in the evening or weekends
- few breaks
- limited time for vacation
> managers are expected to juggle these interest
> managers cannot expect to receive social/emotional credit
> managers have to deal with self isolation
> managers are expected to lend sympathetic ear to all their concerns all the time
> very important factor is psychological resilience and emotional stability
48
What is expected of managers by employees?
> managers are expected to juggle these interest
> managers cannot expect to receive social/emotional credit
> managers have to deal with self isolation
> managers are expected to lend sympathetic ear to all their concerns all the time
> very important factor is psychological resilience and emotional stability
49
Describe the leadership quality Assertiveness.
- employees expect managers to take clear stance and enforce certain decisions (even if they are not personally in agreement)
- assertiveness from a leader creates safety and is associated with strength
- leads to winner-loser situation
- expectation of managers is to be assertive and artful in their expression
> assertiveness needs to be enacted alongside problem solving, negotiation and demonstration of empathy
50
Describe the leadership quality Empathy.
| What types are there?
- ability to see a situation or problem or an action from the position of the other parties concerned
- understanding and reflection of different perspectives
- not the same as compassion
- compassion: manager talks to employee and becomes equally frustrated by his concerns and overwhelmed by the sheer hopelessness
- empathy = manager reflects on the situation with employee and considers what options are available
Cognitive empathy:
- remains emotionally distant, yet is aware of the significant impact of their responses on the patient
- role of manager
- congruence: frankness and honesty
- empathy: ability to feel what client feels
- respect: acceptance and positive attitude
Emotional empathy:
- same as compassion
51
Describe expertise as a management competence.
- proficiency in the manager's own field
- constant willingness to learn
- managerial expertise = social intelligence and competence
Managerial expertise:
1 analytical thinking
2 structured thinking
3 logistical thinking
4 contextual thinking
5 creative thinking
6 establishing and cultivating contact with employees
7 conducting talks
8 enforcing decisions
9 enduring and solving conflict situations
10 meeting the responsibility to react to discrimination behaviour towards employees
52
Describe the interaction between different managerial functions and leadership styles.
1 Authoritarian:
* View of Employees: Machine/subject
* Power of the manager: through hierarchy
* Decisions: like command from top
* Type of control: totalitarian
* Motivation: through fear
2 Bureaucratic:
* View of Employees: anonymous factor
* Power of the manager: based on orga
* Decisions: written instruction
* Type of control: reports and inspection
* Motivation: as system integrity
3 Patriachic:
* View of Employees: child/subordinate
* Power of the manager: father figure
* Decisions: instructive explanation
* Type of control: based on feelings
* Motivation: through dependence
4 Cooperative / participatory:
* View of Employees: employee on equal terms
* Power of the manager: though personality
* Decisions: through persuasion
* Type of control: through the manager
* Motivation: through positive feedback
5 Laissez-faire:
* View of Employees: individual
* Power of the manager: as an equal
* Decisions: through voting
* Type of control: self-regulating
* Motivation: as freedom
53
Describe the authoritarian leadership behaviour.
1 Authoritarian:
* View of Employees: Machine/subject
* Power of the manager: through hierarchy
* Decisions: like command from top
* Type of control: totalitarian
* Motivation: through fear
54
Describe the bureaucratic leadership behaviour.
2 Bureaucratic:
* View of Employees: anonymous factor
* Power of the manager: based on orga
* Decisions: written instruction
* Type of control: reports and inspection
* Motivation: as system integrity
55
Describe the patriarchic leadership behaviour.
3 Patriachic:
* View of Employees: child/subordinate
* Power of the manager: father figure
* Decisions: instructive explanation
* Type of control: based on feelings
* Motivation: through dependence
56
Describe the cooperative / participatory leadership behaviour.
4 Cooperative / participatory:
* View of Employees: employee on equal terms
* Power of the manager: though personality
* Decisions: through persuasion
* Type of control: through the manager
* Motivation: through positive feedback
57
Describe the laissez-faire leadership behaviour.
5 Laissez-faire:
* View of Employees: individual
* Power of the manager: as an equal
* Decisions: through voting
* Type of control: self-regulating
* Motivation: as freedom
58
Describe the self-concept of a manager.
- before dealing with other people and even taking responsibility for them, one should look critically at oneself.
- characteristics, abilities, typical behaviour of oneself
- sense of self-worthiness
- self-concept can be learned / unlearned
- accumulation of pictures of one's self in context of different situations
- knowledge of why and how one makes decisions, who is influenced and how one feels about making decisions
> positive self-concept = open for new experiences, integrates awareness into behaviour, and attains a congruence between self-concept and experiences, leading to stability of self and satisfaction
59
Describe what components are required for a positive self-esteem.
- feels at easy and is confident in his demeanor
- proactive in new situations
- conducts himself independently of opinions of others
- able to deal with criticism about his own person
- socially competent
60
How can a self-concept be developed?
1 formation of self-concept in familiar situations
2 transfer of self-concept in professional situations
3 realisation of self-concept (leadership position)
61
What are effects of positive / negative self-concepts?
> positive self-concept
- open for new experiences
- integrates awareness into behaviour
- attains a congruence between self-concept and experiences, leading to stability of self and satisfaction
> negative self-concept
- low self-esteem
- defend and protect self-structure
- defence mechanisms: denial and distortion
62
Why is the self-concept of new managers often challenged?
- challenge of essentially having to rewrite self-concept
- exceptionally difficult to align own ideas with those of employees
1 employees have their own self-concept they are more or less able to fulfil
2 idealistic concept held the possibly inexperienced manager are often not realised and are often changed given the pressure to succeed rather than maintaining the concepts
63
What are possible leadership dilemmas related to the self-concept of the manager?
1 means vs goal
2 equal treatment of all vs catering to individual case
3 distance vs closeness
4 heteronomy vs self-determination (autonomy)
5 specialisation vs generalisation
6 overall responsibilities vs individual responsibilities
7 conservation vs change
8 competition vs cooperation
9 activation vs reservation
10 inner orientation vs outer orientation
11 goal orientation vs procedure orientation
12 reward orientation vs value orientation
13 self-orientation vs group orientation
64
What are locomotion and cohesion?
Locomotion = function of leadership occurs when employees are moved towards a goal
- provide info
- gather info
- request participation
- contribute suggestions to the team
- combining opinions to create syntheses
- compiling interim reports and progress checks
- offering orientation aids and clarifying group situation
- coordinate statements and tasks
Cohesion = function of leadership occurs when the teams is strengthened and solidarity is encouraged
- responding to, clarifying and compensating for mediating tension
- addressing and articulating group feelings and conflicts
- diagnosing and controlling group processes
- initiating and maintaining a fair, relaxed, and trustful working atmosphere
- ensuring a climate of mutual acceptance and support
65
Describe cohesion.
Cohesion = function of leadership occurs when the teams is strengthened and solidarity is encouraged
- responding to, clarifying and compensating for mediating tension
- addressing and articulating group feelings and conflicts
- diagnosing and controlling group processes
- initiating and maintaining a fair, relaxed, and trustful working atmosphere
- ensuring a climate of mutual acceptance and support
66
Describe locomotion.
Locomotion = function of leadership occurs when employees are moved towards a goal
- provide info
- gather info
- request participation
- contribute suggestions to the team
- combining opinions to create syntheses
- compiling interim reports and progress checks
- offering orientation aids and clarifying group situation
- coordinate statements and tasks
67
What are elements to nurture leadership competence?
1 knowledge of one's own skills and abilities
- leadership styles and instruments
- hierarchy
- communication
- response
- project manangement
- terms of leadership
2 Awareness of one's own person
- life story
- upbringing, education
- self-awareness
- behaviour
- emotions/motivation
- attitudes/values
- role models
- contacts and behaviour when in power
3 Knowledge about the organisation
- official and secret rules
- orga culture
- information network
- structures of leadership
- hardware
68
What is a transfer in leadership?
- transferring one's own experiences onto other people
- someone directs expectations (role expectations), wishes, fears, or believes that were created in the context of previously important relationships onto the behaviour or perceptions of other people
* neglect of employees through experience of previous orga can influence performance and impressions in new orga
69
What is social intelligence?
| What are the components?
- concept of Goldman
1 self-awareness:
* deep understanding of emotions, strengths, weaknesses, needs and motives
* capacity for self-reflection (connected to capacity for self-awareness)
* continuous inner conversation to control emotions and ensure stability
2 self-management
3 social consciousness
* exchangeable with empathy
4 relationship management
* conflict management
* cooperation
70
According to Goleman what are six leadership styles to create a positive workplace atmosphere and worker performance?
```
1 visionary
2 coach
3 affiliate
4 democratic
5 pacesetting
6 commanding
```
> no leader is perfect nor does he need to be
> leadership can be learned through a multi-level discovery process
71
Describe the leadership learning/discovery process.
According to Goleman
First discovery: My ideal self - Who do I want to be?
Second discovery: My real self - Who am I?
Third discovery: Compiling a learning agenda to build on strengths and reduce weaknesses
Forth discovery: Experiment with new behaviour patterns, thoughts, and feelings and use these in practise
Fifth discovery: Develop relationships that support and foster these changes
71
Describe the leadership learning/discovery process.
According to Goleman
First discovery: My ideal self - Who do I want to be?
Second discovery: My real self - Who am I?
Third discovery: Compiling a learning agenda to build on strengths and reduce weaknesses
Forth discovery: Experiment with new behaviour patterns, thoughts, and feelings and use these in practise
Fifth discovery: Develop relationships that support and foster these changes
72
Describe Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.
- suggests connection between performance and behaviour
- how leaders should deal with inner needs of the employees
- self-actualisation can only be reached when all other needs are met
```
Psychological needs
safety needs
loving/belonging needs
esteem needs
self-actualisation
```
> managers should support employees towards self-actualisation (help them to achieve their goals)
73
What is the critique about Maslow's hierarchy?
- model is not necessarily hierarchal or applicable to all individuals or groups
- people aspire self-actualisation without satisfying the underlying needs
- only relevant in wester industrialised cultures
- societies with cohesion of the group, community support are higher priority than self-actualisation
74
Describe the Theory X and Theory Y.
McGregor
- human motivation and management behaviour corresponds to:
```
Theory X:
* human beings are lazy
* unwilling to take on responsibility
* passive bodies
* need order and coercion to work
Leadership tasks:
> control, force or incentivise employees towards objectives
> culture of distrust
```
Theory Y:
* humans are willing to work
* willing to take responsibilities
* active participants wanting to do a good job
* need opportunities
Leadership tasks:
> identification of employees with orga objectives
> controls are not necessary
> satisfaction of needs and aspirations for self-actualisation
75
Want are the fundamental basic leadership attributes according to Crisand?
1 fairness by respecting employees as a person, honouring promises, undertakings and agreements, willingness to compromise and frustration tolerance
2 consideration is shown when supervisor has necessary sensitivity to notice what affects an employee
3 openness is demonstrated when a manager allows and supports employees to take part in what they find fulfilling. Atmosphere of trust and mutual respect
4 Justness is especially shown in scenarios such as performance reviews. Requires willingness to be assertive and compromise
76
Explain Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory.
| Explain critical evaluations regarding the model.
- Dissatisfaction is produced by working environment factors (hygiene factors)
Hygiene factors:
* employee/boss relationship and level of supervision
* work conditions and salary
* company policies
* relationships with peers
- addressing hygiene factors can lead to reduction of dissatisfaction but not to an increase in satisfaction
```
satisfaction can be reached by factors related to the content of work
Motivation factors:
* opportunity to do something meaningful that contributes to performance or success
* recognition for work done
* involvement in decision making
* nature of the work
* responsibility and involvement
* advancement
* possibility of personal development
```
Critical eval:
> no connection necessary between performance and satisfaction (person can perform very well even when unsatisfied)
77
Explain ambiguity tolerance.
| What is the cause for it?
- refers to contradictory characteristics in a single person
e. g. person can be highly likeable and great team player but actually harm the productivity of the group significantly
- managers need strategies to achieve team goals and carry out orga tasks
- coping strategies depend on to what expend ambiguity-triggering factors are attributed to psychological turmoil or inner mental threat
- self concepts of a person could be threatened
> ambiguity tolerance of employees will interact with feelings of tension experienced by the managers and escalates or deescalates the employee's experience of feeling under threat
78
What is the purpose and definition of management tools?
| Which types can be differentiated?
- means by which management can attain particular goals in the most efficient way
- process of coordination, negotiation, information-sharing and motivation
- influencing factors to help employees succeed in particular situations
Types:
1 Material tools:
* direct impact on salary and company social benefits (retirement pension, profit sharing)
* indirect impact: working conditions
2 Non-Material tools:
* direct impact: leadership style
* indirect impact: vocational training, further education, distribution of info and avenues for communication
79
What are the two groups of management tools?
| What is an alternative clustering of management tools?
1 Organisational management tools:
* used to create favourable conditions for desired behaviours by structuring responsibilities, decisions, control and info processes
2 Personell management tools:
* have direct impact on employee behaviour, more likely to achieve desired outcome that orga tools
Alternative categories:
1 process-related mgmt tools: goals, plans controls and job descriptions
2 information-related mgmt tools: instructions, agreements, meetings
3 task-related mgmt tools: cooperation, delegation, participation
4 personalised mgmt tools: personnel evaluations, development, remuneration
5 corporate culture
80
What are job descriptions?
| What are the main purposes?
- used as organisational management tool
- description of functions, responsibilities, job profiles
- written record of what tasks are to be accomplished in a role
- scope of discretion
- general relationship of position to other positions
- legal requirement
Purpose:
> main basis for evaluating the position in comparison to others in the orga and determining the remuneration
> job profile: factor for recruitment, training and basis for developing plans and qualification measures
81
What are elements that should be included in job descriptions?
- job descriptions = organisational mgmt tool
1 classification of position within the orga
2 substitute in case of absence
3 list of responsibilities with goals of position incl. activities, competencies, duties, requirements and responsibilities
4 opportunities for further development
5 performance standards/benchmark for evaluating expect performance
6 technical and organisational responsibilities
82
List the "management by" techniques.
1 Management by exception
2 Management by delegation
3 Management by objectives
4 Management by systems
83
Describe the Management-by-Techniques.
- organisational management tool
1 Management by exception
* employees make own decisions
* if procedure is particularly important = exception; it is handled by the supervisor
* involvement in decision making for employees
* reduces routine work for manager
* bring in expertise for highly critical decisions instead of routine ones
2 Management by delegation
* many approval processes and responsibilities assigned to employees
* employees make their own decisions
* typical managerial tasks + far reaching consequential decisions remain with manager
* supervisor relieved from workload by his staff
* employee training on making their own decisions
3 Management by objectives
* classic goal setting
* goal setting either:
- supervisor defines objectives and talks to employee
- employee defines objectives and talks to supervisor
- they both define the objectives together
* no objective is solely provided by the supervisor
4 Management by systems
* higher level management tool
* all processes ongoing loop: goal setting, accomplishing, controlling, reporting
* combines MBO and MBD
* goal = transparent control mechanism and orient employee work position and relationship towards it
84
Why is communication considered a management tool?
- organisational management tool
- strengthen trust and job security
- improve employee loyalty, satisfy curiosity and explain attraction of the orga brand (employer branding)
- widespread info has great impact on behaviour and contributes to orga climate
- shared information creates trust
85
Describe three personnel management tools in detail.
1 Employee Performance Review
* regular, systematic evaluations by managers usually taking place 1x year
* evaluation method utilise highly standardised scales to eval employees based on specific criteria
- performance review becomes problematic when directly connected to salary expectations
- labor laws require performance reviews in some countries
- potential for conflict: acceptance depends highly on perception of value of the evaluation criteria, how well the criteria were operationalised, classification against other colleagues, the way the meeting is conducted by the manager
2 Employee Discussions
* similar to performance review
* goal setting, discussing perspectives, explaining something, addressing conflicts or discussing developments
* significant symbolic meaning for employees, how they feel and how they perceive the manger
3 Incentive Systems
* activates, motivates, promises rewards, initiates behaviour
* material: salary structures, social security, pension, housing credit, company shares etc.
* non-material: related to work itself (autonomy, demands, etc.); social incentives (relationships); incentives of the internal or external corporate environment (image, prestige, etc.)
* desirable behaviour is coordinated by several incentives
* paradoxical effect: hidden cost of incentives if tasks are carried out on their own sake but falsely incentivised
86
Describe Performance Reviews.
| What are important elements to consider for managers?
Personell Management Tool
* regular, systematic evaluations by managers usually taking place 1x year
* evaluation method utilise highly standardised scales to eval employees based on specific criteria
- performance review becomes problematic when directly connected to salary expectations
- labor laws require performance reviews in some countries
- potential for conflict
Area to consider:
* acceptance depends highly on perception of value of the evaluation criteria
* how well the criteria were operationalised
* classification against other colleagues
* the way the meeting is conducted by the manager
87
Describe Employee Discussions.
| What are fundamental features of it?
Personnel Management Tool
* similar to performance review
* goal setting, discussing perspectives, explaining something, addressing conflicts or discussing developments
* significant symbolic meaning for employees, how they feel and how they perceive the manger
Fundamentals:
1 During conversation: hierarchy is irrelevant, openness and trust are crucial and appropriate values of respect
2 Feedback for employees should be fact based; goals should be clear for both parties
3 Both parties should contribute equally to the conversation; employee should have enough time to explain perspective and opinion
4 Impersonal formulations should be avoided ( "I feel like" instead of "you are")
88
Describe Incentives.
| What's important to understand about incentives?
Personnel Management Tool
* activates, motivates, promises rewards, initiates behaviour
* material: salary structures, social security, pension, housing credit, company shares etc.
* non-material: related to work itself (autonomy, demands, etc.); social incentives (relationships); incentives of the internal or external corporate environment (image, prestige, etc.)
* desirable behaviour is coordinated by several incentives
* paradoxical effect: hidden cost of incentives if tasks are carried out on their own sake but falsely incentivised
Important = difference between kinds of motivations
1 intrinsic = passion, fun, hobby
2 extrinsic = money, image, prestige
> boosting extrinsic motivations for work performance is a matter of identifying individual needs of employees
> trust employees' inherent motivation, put aside extrinsic motivators
> focus on trust
89
Describe the managerial functions.
1 communication: sharing information and knowledge with employees so that objectives can be achieved
2 planning: looking for the best ways to achieve objectives
3 setting goals: developing objectives through dialogue; ensuring acceptance between employees and managers
4 delegation: instilling influence and responsibilities among employees to enable them to complete tasks or assume responsibilities for whole areas depending on competencies
5 controlling: delegated tasks must be evaluated from the point of view of the desired results so that objective is not compromised
90
What are pros/cons of written communication?
+ precisions
+ ability to reinforce key posts with graphics and images
+ permanence of info
- exclusion of some employees
- danger of misinterpretation
91
What are pros/cons of spoken communication?
+ directness (addressing reactions)
+ show emotion, react to emotion
+ rapid and individualised
+ bidirectional
- time intensive
- difficult to express complicated content and instructions
92
What are the dimensions of communication?
| Which ones are the most important?
1 Factual information: what are you sharing: content of message
2 Self-disclosure: what are you sharing about yourself: intentions and feelings
3 Relationship message: what you are saying about the relationship with the recipient: formulation and tone of voice
4 Appeal: course of action you want your partner to take
> tone of voice, emphasis, pronunciation, factual expression, gesture and other body languages are the most influential factors
93
Describe the guidelines for interpersonal communication.
1 Preparation:
- think through what you want to say
- decide about the outcome
- run worst-case scenarios
2 Opening
- start the conversation with points of commonality (small talk)
3 Information
- be clear on the need and expectation of the conversation
4 Reasoning
- discuss topics
- introduce summaries
- keep goals in mind
- ask questions
- don't interrupt
5 Ensuring results
- involve conversation partners in the outcome
- Summarise the results of the conversation
- clarify responsibilities and evaluation measures
6 Conclusion
- ask for feedback
7 Follow-Up
- reflect on conversation
- measure lvl of satisfaction
94
Why is planning important for managers?
| What are important elements related to it?
- managers must manage daily business + take on new tasks and unfamiliar tasks
- consider strategies and measures to use in order to achieve planning goals and define key indicators for successful performance monitoring
```
> planning cannot be conducted in isolation
* processes of the orga
* delegation
* evaluation
must be taking into account
```
95
Explain possible planning tools for managers.
1 Pareto principle: 80/20 rule
- focus on getting things done instead of perfection
- 80 % of tasks in 20% time
- focus efforts on the most important tasks and delegate rest
- effect and outcome must be kept in balance
2 Eisenhower Principle
- distinguishes between responsibilities according to IMPORTANCE and URGENCY
- Importance: focuses on relation towards goal
- Urgency: relates to time
- Important + Urgent = action must be done immediately
- Important + not urgent = most important long-term goals (plan for future)
- Not Important + urgent = manly routine tasks (delegate if possible)
- Not important + not urgent = neither do nor delegate (ignore)
3 ABC-Analysis
- diving tasks in more or less important
- A-Activites: absolute priority, only managers can do A tasks
- B-Activities: average importance and some can be delegated
- C-Activities: lowest importance, should always be delegated
4 ALPEN Method
- Aufgaben notieren
- Länge schätzen
- Pufferzeit planen
- Entscheidung treffen
- Nachkontrolle
5 Getting Things done
- self-management method
- collect everything that must be accomplished today, later or sometime in the future in a practical, reliable system outside your head and your thoughts
- discipline yourself when things arise, so you have a plan ready
- record, work through, organise, overview, accomplish
96
Describe why setting objectives is fundamental for managers.
- objectives motivate people in orgas
- corporate strategy sets long-term goals and transfers them to the individual employee
- enables people to get involved to recognise their own contribution to the orgas objectives
- crucial for overall success
- establishes basis for communication with employees (functions, roles, etc.)
Main advantages:
+ objectives and result orientation for the overall orga
+ establishment of more conscious feedback and management culture
+ greater transparency for employees
+ establishment of incentives
+ support for employee corporation
97
Describe how objectives can be defined and formulated.
Types of goals can be defined according:
```
1 individual objectives
2 group objectives
3 strategic objectives
4 operational objectives
5 qualitative objectives
6 quantitative objectives
```
Formulating objectives with SMART technique:
- Specific
- Measurable
- Attainable
- Realistic
- Time-framed
> always formulate in a positive, personalised and active way (as though it is already done)
98
Describe why managers and employees should agree on objectives.
- foundation for employee motivation and personal responsibility
- goal-setting meeting
- opportunities for giving employee a basis orientation (tasks, activities, performance expectation, priorities)
- create common understanding
- employee should have opportunity to show own initiative (personal development and work environment)
99
What are important information requirements for agreeing on goals?
1 Big picture: How does this tasks fit into the big strategic picture?
2 Outcome: What outcome is expected? quantitative and qualitative
3 Timing: What are the timeframes?
4 Resources: What resources are available?
5 Organisation: How will the work be divided up?
6 Obstacles: What difficulties should be expected?
7 Help: What help/support is available
8 Risk: What risks are to be expected?
9 Value: How meaningful is the outcome? Consequences?
10 Process: Which processes lead to success?
11 Controls: When and how will this be reported/controlled?
100
What are important questions/areas to consider before delegating a task?
1 Specialised knowledge: is extra training required?
2 Skills: are the relevant abilities and skills in place?
3 Experience: Does the employee have the necessary experience?
4 Motivation: Does the attitude fit the task?
5 Stability: Is the employee able to deal with the pressure to succeed?
6 Conditions: Are the personal conditions met?
7 Development potential: Is there potential to grow into the task?
8 Risk assessment: What problems/risks can be expected?
9 Intellectual potential: Does the employee have an adequate understanding of the task?
101
What are advantages of delegation?
+ reduces managers workload
+ frees manager up for more important taks
+ employee initiative is developed and supported
+ greater responsibility can be transferred to employee
+ increases self-confidence and job satisfaction of employees
> fundamental element: judging the maturity of employee
102
Describe why controlling is important for managers.
| What is important to consider?
- managers are responsible for results and must be accountable for and aware of progress towards the goals at any given time
- receive relevant key indicators from department
- monitor figures, projects, feedback, quality, speeds, and work results
> what aspects must be monitors to judge whether the orga is en route towards goals
> careful because control can evoke feeling of unease (lack of trust and authority)
> always handle control with transparency and openness
> limit controls as much as possible
103
What are fundamental elements to consider regarding controlling activities?
What are possible types of controls?
> what aspects must be monitors to judge whether the orga is en route towards goals
> careful because control can evoke feeling of unease (lack of trust and authority)
> always handle control with transparency and openness
> limit controls as much as possible
Types:
- spot checks: information without mistrust (samples)
- progress controls: based on the complexity of taks
- outcome controls: used when the employee is judged to be sufficiently competent
104
What are the top rules to create a working feedback culture?
| What are successful feedback rules/techniques?
1 Ensure you have good arguments for the evaluation
2 If negative results are present, make specific suggestions for improvement
Types:
1 Sandwich method: praise, unsatisfactory result, praise
2 Good arguments: evaluate results clearly as positive and negative and provide clear arguments
3 Provide Examples: evaluate the results clearly as positive and negative and provide specific examples
4 Allow Questions: discuss and evaluate results like behaviour, allow and encourage questions
5 Suggest action: evaluate results, then suggest action to improve
105
Describe why knowledge is important and what the managerial task is regarding knowledge.
- managers must learn to accept and deal with imperfect knowledge basis
- growing degree of specialised knowledge that must be managed and coordinated (managers are not the center of universe anymore)
- information is important but knowledge is about purposeful integration
Types of knowledge:
- implicit knowledge (embodied): difficult to formalise, communicate, and share because it is stored in the minds of individuals, subjective understanding and intuition
- explicit knowledge (disembodied): saved in media outside of individual minds, can be shared and saved
- managers must establish knowledge basis to establish a smooth flow of operations from risk perspective
- support organisational learning
- establish knowledge basis to eliminate informational and communicational barriers
106
What leads to cultural value change?
- shift from authoritarian leadership to people being the most important factor
- production factor employees: knowledge, motivation, creativity, concentration, relationship skills and other competencies
- increasing demand for sustainable business practices (social responsibilities) focused on societal, political and environmental systems
107
Describe the term subjectification of work.
| What are the challenges?
- people do not work only to make money (not the single motivator)
- highly qualified employees are interested in the most demanding and challenging responsibilities
- employees demanding autonomy and self-organisation
- increased need for independent work, flexible work formats and times, creativity, and innovation
Challenge:
- Deeply ambivalent: changes (independence, accountability, individual interests) are often accompanied by risk of higher work intensity, overload. and fear of failure
> subjectivication overall is positive: increased job satisfaction, more responsibilities, etc.
108
What are consequences of globalisation?
| What are the results for managers?
1 enormous advances in productivity
2 coordination by way of control and manipulation across power bases
3 exclusion of individuals as the system dismisses 'its children'
4 explosion of social costs and social time bombs
5 extreme shortage of managers, employees and entrepreneurs
6 cultural identity
7 improvements through decentralisation and cooperation
8 advancement of productivity through holistic approaches
9 cooperation as prevalent characteristic of the new economy
10 intensive use of information and communication technologies that favour decentralisation
11 smaller orga structures with flatter hierarchies
12 stronger coordination through self-management based on trust
13 outstanding leadership and management
14 trust and cooperation
15 consolidating quality and productivity via quest for meaning
Results:
> managers must shape change in values
> work cultures and models have to change
> work and leisure needs to become more fluid
> excellent leadership and management are prerequisite for managing in the new landscape
109
What are possible points of friction in change management?
| How can these be solved by managers?
1 different thinking and behavioural patterns of employees
2 different vocabulary for concepts and understanding
3 different management styles and cultures
4 different experience with reorganisation
5 existing information monopolies
6 winner-loser conflicts
7 internal communication reacting to external communication
> successful planning of change including prediction of friction
> never underestimate change
> employees are the center of change
> employees must not only tolerate change but identify with it
110
What are the top managerial responsibilities in change projects?
1 serve as a role model
2 actively communicate the change
3 being aware that personal views of change have a significant impact on project success and employee attitudes
4 make clear decisions
5 convince employees that change will lead to improvement
6 initiate and guide change
7 drive and control change
111
Describe possibilities how managerial responsibilities can lead to increases in trust in the management relationship.
```
1 sharing sense and vision
2 tranparency
3 room to maneuver
4 clarity in goal, expectation, standards and rules
5 evaluation through feedback
6 positive focus
7 good working conditions
8 behaviour by example
9 fairness
```
112
What are possible reasons for change resistance among managers?
```
1 fear of losing influence or status
2 too many changes in recent years
3 overload (work volume/psychological)
4 frustration due to past changes
5 lack of understanding about necessity for change
6 feat of difficult decisions
```
113
According to Kotter, which factors can lead to failure of change processes?
1 Not establishing a great enough sense of urgency
2 Not creating a powerful enough guiding coalition
3 Lack of vision
4 Under-communicating the vision by a factor of ten
5 not removing obstacles to the new vision
6 not systematically planning for and creating short-term wins
7 Declaring victory too soon
8 not anchoring changes in the corporation's culture
114
How can leadership style and leadership behaviour be measured?
- asking employees how pronounced leadership behaviour is using leadership questionnaires
- require clear assignment of specific behaviours to specific leadership styles
> Führungsstilfragebogen (FSF) measures leadership behaviour in critical situations
> focus on social-communicative behaviour
> main dimension: employee, task and participation orientation
* questionnaire is standardised
* evaluation criteria are checked for validity and reliably
* link between age and leadership style
* possible to measure preferred leadership style and learn particular style
* reflect on self-image with external image
* basis for coaching and personnel development measures
115
Describe the leadership typology according to Rosenstiel.
> Führungsstilfragebogen (FSF) measures leadership behaviour in critical situations
> focus on social-communicative behaviour
> main dimension: employee (EO), task (TO) and participation orientation (PO)
```
1 Laissez faire (TO: low; EO: low, PO: low)
2 Buddy (TO: low; EO: high, PO: low)
3 Authoritarian (TO: high; EO: low, PO: low)
4 Patriarchal (TO: high; EO: high, PO: low)
5 Delegating (TO: low; EO: low, PO: high)
6 Supportive (TO: low; EO: high, PO: high)
7 (Over)Demanding (TO: high; EO: low, PO: high)
8 Cooperative (TO: high; EO: high, PO: high)
```
116
How can transactional and transformational leadership be measured?
transactional: persuading employees to complete tasks in exchange for advantages or rewards
transformational: employees are motivated to work on higher, intrinsic goals that go beyond satisfying their immediate personal interests
> Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ)
* based on LS-Styles
* individuals can rate themselves as managers, and others can rate the manager in a separate form
Transformational leadership:
1 Charisma: degree of trust and respect towards leader
2 Inspirational motivation: Motivational images of the future and emotional activation
3 Intellectual stimulation: motivating other to break out of ingrained ways of thinking and support innovation
4 Appreciation of the Individual: approach colleagues and being prepared to help, give direction in the work process
Transactional leadership:
1 Conditional rewards: positive or negative emphasis on the degree of achievement as well as degree of consensus about what individuals do for others
2 MBE: looks at whether the manager only intervenes when things are not done as they should or only maintains status quo
Laissez-Faire leadership:
1 passive-avoidant leadership: looks to what degree the supervisor is complacent about results, gives no direction, or is unwilling to make contact
> transformation is superior
117
Which leadership style is the most successful?
- Pfützner: cooperative leadership
- Zander: authoritarian leadership to reach short term success, quickly achieve outcomes and controlling cost limits
- Gebert: there is no generalised recommendation without knowing the goals and conditions (specific manager and work context)
- increasingly adoption of "it depends" in leadership research
- Gallati: two criteria for choosing leadership style:
1 socio-emotional aspect (employee satisfaction, job security, turnover, sick days)
2 effectiveness of achievement (efficiency of LS-style to meet objectives)
> there are not good or bad leaders only effective and ineffective ones in various situations
> EO correlates with satisfaction and TO
> neither TO nor EO strongly correlate with efficiency or performance
118
Describe the influence of situational factors on leadership success.
- high work motivation, satisfaction with job and supervisor, strong connection to orga and goals are considered central subjective "soft criteria" that result in successful employee leadership
> correlation between transformational leadership style and subjective success criteria (higher than objectives ones)
> employees are more involved, achieve higher satisfaction and adopt a "organisational citizenship behaviour"
119
What are leadership principles?
| What are aspects of them?
- descriptive behavioural statements that define tasks, rights, duties of leaders and guide their behaviour in the orga accordingly
- ideal behaviour and actions for efficient and effective leadership
Similar aspects for all leadership principles:
1 describe in cooperative interaction style
2 business oriented
3 agreement and tracking of objectives
4 criteria for making decisions on informational or communicational processes
5 often derived from corporate principles
> consistency and predictability as most important factors to ensure employee trust and role model competencies of leaders
120
According to Lewin behavioural formula, If an employee’s behavior does not meet the expectations, the questions to ask are?
```
Whether:
he could not do it,
he did not want to do it,
he was not allowed to do it,
he did not have the necessary resources or if there were impeding barriers.
```
121
In the rise of information economy - what are opportunities for companies to gain a competitive advantage?
- establish internal processes designed such that workers create, store, access, and use information in digital form as a routine part of the process by which work is done.
- Information-based strategies can
* help an organization streamline and speed information flows
* improve creation and
* dissemination of knowledge
* promote creativity, cut costs
* create new product offerings.
122
What are the fundamental components of transformational leadership?
charismatic leadership, leaders achieve this task by engaging in inspirational behaviors such as:
- articulating a compelling vision
- emphasizing collective identities
- expressing confidence and optimism,
- referencing core values and ideals
123
What is considered to be the building blocks of ethical leadership?
- being an ethical example
- treating people fairly
- actively managing morality
> Effect on Role conflict and/or role pressure of employees
124
How can employee creativity be influenced by leadership?
Mainly focus on:
- cognitive style (ability to generate novel ideas)
- intrinsic motivation (enjoyment)
- personal characteristics of leader (stimulus for employees)
- relationship between employee and manager (freedom, autonomy, and risk taking)
125
Why should managers develop their capacities for intervention in third-party conflicts?
- improve working relationship
- can help develop own conflict-management, communication and problem solving skills
- increased teams in orgas (own management of conflict = better performance)
- negotiating and managing own conflict
- increasing importance in future
126
How can a manager decide whether to intervene in third-party conflicts?
1. Is intervention necessary or appropriate?
2 If so, what type of intervention is most appropriate?
3 Is the manager the appropriate person to intervene?
4 If not, should the services of an independent resource be provided?
5 If so, how can the manager make use of the resource?
127
What are competences required for conflict intervention?
1 understanding the dynamics of interpersonal and intergroup conflict
2 knowledge of collective problem solving
3 knowledge and skills in relationship-building process and procedures
4 interpersonal communication skills
128
What are characteristics of ambiguity-tolerant individuals?
1 adept at framing questions to guide collaboration and teamwork
2 farsighted in scanning for problems
3 seek options and new ideas that are not yet obvious
4 being risk tolerant (timing more important than accuracy)
5 ability to turn crisis into an opportunity
6 attitude that doesn't shy away from failure
7 flexibility in decision making (ability to change mind about smth.)
129
Describe the above-average effect.
most people see themselves as above average and ignore objective data, etc.
self-serving bias caused by:
1 motivational theory: self-esteem motivate successful action
2 information processing theory: people want to achieve goals, they make plans to succeed
3 self-presentation theory: people are managers of impressions
130
Describe the term casual ambiguity.
- refers to the obscurities of internal firms competencies:
* technology expertise
* process skills
* management development
131
Describe the goal-setting theory.
- people with hard-goals (stretch goals) perform better
132
What are the eight steps to effective change according to Kotter?
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1 sense of urgency
2 guiding coalition
3 common vision and strategy
4 communication and understanding
5 empowering others toast
6 short-term wins
7 avoid letting up
8 new culture
```
133
What does ‘organizational misbehavior’ mean?
disloyal behaviour shown towards the orga
134
What does ‘behavioral pattern approach’ mean t?
Leadership is an activity where situation-appropriate, complex behavioral patterns are displayed.
135
Why is House’s ‘path-goal’ theory considered a transactional model of leadership?
It describes leadership behavior as a process.
It focuses on the behavioral reciprocity between the leader and the individual being led.
136
What does ‘personal leadership’ mean according to Scouller?
- Authentic leadership.
| - The inner state of an executive.
137
What does the term ‘idiosyncrasy credit’ mean?
- Acceptance of the power of a leader who can then behave with less conformity.
- Acknowledgement of long-term conforming behavior resulting in leadership.
138
Why is leadership considered to be an emotionally charged process?
The atmosphere of leadership influences the behavior of employees.
139
What is role differentiation?
The determination of different roles resulting from the exchange of role expectations.
140
What influences the sanction balance?
The degree to which violating a norm will lead to serious punishment or not
141
What does transference mean in day-to-day leadership?
- Unconscious activation of earlier conflict-ridden relationship patterns
- Shifting the experiences of former relationships onto employees
142
Why do executives send out inconsistent messages (according to the model by Mueller-Christ and Wessling)?
Because they do not develop strategies to accept contradictions or tolerate ambivalence
143
What is the purpose of employee discussions?
- Influencing the behavior of employees
- Influencing the behavior of leaders
- Setting goals and discussing perspectives
144
Describe Wiswedes concept of sanction balance.
How does it influence change in the organisational context?
- due to experience the more favourable the sanction balance, the more willing the person is to become involved in the role
- extrinsic (stimulated by playing the role)
- intrinsic (arising from the role itself)
- based on past experiences or stereotypical beliefs
Orga context:
- unknown roles = expectations are compared to ongoing experiences
- role generalisation: role experiences can be transferred to new, similar roles
> can lead to obstructive behaviour if "as per usual" approach is applied
> orga change, without reflecting on cultural norms, values, and directly supervised employees is very obstructive
