Language Techniques Flashcards
Allegory
Meaning:
- When characters and plot represent ideas that relate to morality, politic or religion
Effect:
- Allows authors to explore often overwhelming / controversial ideas in an approachable manner
e.g Mrs Birling is an allegory for the way upper classes viewed themselves as socially superior to lower classes
Alliteration
Effect:
- Draws reader’s attention to certain words or phrases on a page.
- It also has more emphasis when read
Allusion
Meaning:
- Making reference to something without explicitly stating it
Effect:
- Allusion allows authors to infer meanings by creating parallels between their text and whatever it is their alluding too.
- It can also do the opposite by creating contrast between the author’s argument and their allusion
e.g ‘like Adam’ from Frankenstein to allude to the man from The Bible creating …
Anaphora
Effect:
- Like Alliteration, it draws the attention of the reader and creates emphasis.
- However, Anaphora also creates rhythm and injects emotion into the text
e.g ‘thrice to ..thrice to .. thrice …’ - use of anaphora creates a clear rhythm and emphasises the power of the witches
Archetype
Meaning:
- An archetype is effectively a stereotype of a character or thing.
- It is a model around which certain character types are built (ie. a tragic hero).
Effect:
- Archetypes are used to build connections between the reader and the characters.
- It prompts a feeling of familiarity which causes readers to become more emotionally invested in a text.
Example:
In ‘A Christmas Carol, Ebenezer Scrooge fits neatly into the archetype of character transformation. Begins … and ends…
Aphorism
Meaning:
- A short statement about a widely accepted truth.
- These are often amusing or witty in nature
Effect:
- Use of aphorisms builds trust between the reader and the writer; by making use of universal truths, the reader comes to understand the writer as trustworthy, thus increasing engagement and helping persuade them of the writer’s argument.
Example:
‘Pride and Pjejudice’ opens with an aphorism
‘It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife” - aphorism not only establishes the writer as trustworthy, for making a statement about social norms of the time, but it establishes the tone of the entire text, foreshadowing the events to come.
Assonance
Meaning:
- Repetition of a similar vowel sound in consecutive words or words in close proximity
Effect:
- Like alliteration and anaphora, assonance creates rhythm in a text.
- It allows readers to interpret a sentence the way the author intended by making clear which vowel sound should be stressed.
Example:
In ‘Romeo and Juliet’ - assonance in a lot of Juliet’s speech: “Nightly she sings on yon pomegranate tree. / Believe me, love, it was the nightingale”. Repetition of the long E sound creates clear rhythm, and echoes the melody of the nightingale.
Caesura
Meaning:
- A stop in the middle of a metrical line.
- This usually comes in the form of commas,
dashes, or colons in the middle of a line of
poetry.
Effect:
- Caesura gives a choppy and dysfunctional tone to the text
- Simultaneously increasing reading pace
- Increasing pace builds tension, and can help
relay feelings of frustration or confusion to a
reader.
Example:
in ‘Romeo and Juliet’ during the balcony scene, Shakespeare makes use of much caesura in order to accurately portray the overwhelming emotions felt by Romeo and Juliet.
Chiasmus
Meaning:
- The reversal of phrases or grammatical structures in consecutive phrases or sentences.
Effect:
- Chiasmus adds emphasis to a portion of the
text, drawing the reader’s eye and making
sentences stand out more.
- Reversing a phrase just after using it engages
the reader’s attention by disrupting the
structure of the text.
Example:
In ‘Macbeth’ 1.1, the witches use chiasmus for emphasis when they chant “Fair is Foul, Foul is Fair”. As previously mentioned, this sentence sets the tone for the play, and the use of chiasmus helps foreshadow the events to come.
Connotation
Effect:
- Writers often use connotations to help convey
emotions or feelings, allowing them to invoke a
deeper emotional response in the reader.
Example:
in ‘Frankenstein’ “creature” casts Frankenstein’s monster in a negative light due to negative connotations, implying he is monstrous and bruteish.
Consonance
Meaning:
- Repetition of a similar consonant sound in
consecutive words or words in close proximity.
Effect:
- Consonance helps create rhythm in a text.
- It makes a sentence more pleasing to the ear,
thus increasing reader engagement.
Example:
In the prologue of ‘Romeo and Juliet’, Shakespeare writes “From forth tho fatal loins of these two foes”, repeating the F consonant to emphasise that Romeo and Juliet were destined to fail.
Contrast
Meaning:
- A rhetorical device in which a writer draws
attention to the difference between two
characters, things, or events.
Effect:
- Through comparing and contrasting, writers can
make stronger arguments and create stronger
statements, further engaging the reader
Example:
The contrasting personalities of Mr Wickham and Mr Darcy are used to build tension throughout ‘Pride and Prejudice’, while also emphasising Jane Austen’s disdain for unjust judgement.
Dichotomy
Meaning:
- A division into two opposite groups (ie. peace
and war, love and hate).
Effect:
- Dichotomies are often used to create and build
tension in a storyline; they allow the reader to
clearly understand both groups, increasing
emotional engagement.
Example:
Throughout ‘Jane Eyre’, Bronte establishes a clear dichotomy of male oppression and female rage in the way Jane interacts with male characters in the text.
Diction
Meaning:
- The words a writer chooses to use to best convey their message.
Effect:
- Diction is responsible for the way a reader
interprets a text, and can be used in any way a
writer pleases.
- It can be used to emphasise characters’
emotions, or repression of emotions. It can be
used to create a more romantic tone, or an
aggressive tone
Example:
shakespeare uses diction to emphasise
Macbeth’s attempt to justify his own actions, particularly in the dagger soliloquy. He personifies Murder to create a distance between his crimes and his responsibility.
Didactism
Meaning:
- When the main purpose of a text is to teach the
reader a lesson, often a moral one. It can also
apply to characters in a text.
Effect:
- Didactic tone is often applied throughout
an entire text and it prompts deeper thought by
the reader.
- It encourages a deeper understanding of the
text, which in turn increases their engagement.
Example:
‘A Christmas Carol’ is a didactic text filled with moral messages. Scrooge’s moral improvement teaches the reader a similar message to the one he learns himself - as readers, we are on a journey of moral development with him.
Dissonance
Meaning:
- Use of harsh and interrupting sounds in text, particularly with use of words that generally do not work together.
Effect:
- Dissonance creates a tone of tension and unease, building suspense for the reader and relaying emotions felt by the characters.
Example:
In tense moments in ‘Macbeth’, Shakespeare uses blank verse and variant vowel sounds to create dissonance. This is particularly evident when Macbeth says ““Of all men else I have avoided thee. // But get thee back. My soul is too much charged // With blood of thine already.”
Dramatic irony
Meaning:
- When the reader or audience are aware of
something the characters are not.
Effect:
- Dramatic irony creates suspense, because it is
inevitable that the characters will come to
understand what the audience/reader already
knows. Tension builds as readers wait for the
truth to come to light.
Ellipsis
Meaning:
- Often represented as “…’’ or ‘’-‘’
used to pause for dramatic effect.
Effect:
- When used as a pause, ellipsis builds tension by
creating a silence not often found in literature.
- It is often used when characters trail off, and it
often holds some implied meaning.
- In this case, it encourages deeper engagement
by the readers, who must consider the meaning
of the ellipses.
Example:
In ‘An Inspector Calls’, Sheila says “Oh-Gerald - you’ve got it - is it the one you wanted me to have?”. The ellipsis used here builds tension by implying a degree of discomfort or awkwardness on Sheila’s part.
Enjambment
Meaning:
- When a sentence continues beyond the end of a line without use of punctuation - often seen in poetry and rhymed verse.
Effect:
- Enjambment increases the pace of a section of
text by forcing the reader to continue reading
without a break.
- Increasing the pace builds tension and
suspense, and it can be used to indicate a
character’s state of mind.
Epigraphs
Meaning:
- A quote, poem, or phrase set at the beginning
of a piece of text. This may just be at the
beginning of a section.
Effect:
- Epigraphs are generally not mentioned in the
main body of the text, so their sole purpose is
to set the tone of the text.
- They establish a certain mood and let readers
know what they should expect from the text.
Example:
in the 1918 edition of ‘Frankenstein’ Shelley uses
“Did I request thee, Maker, from my clay / To mould me man?” as her epigraph. This sets the tone for the novel, establishing a theme of creation and disdain.
Epitome
Meaning:
- A person or item which is a perfect
representation of something else, particularly a
quality or concept.
Effect:
- Epitomes are used to draw attention to the
argument the writer is making that a certain
person is the perfect example of something
else.
- It makes the argument more impactful.
Example:
in ‘Frankenstein’ Victor Frankestein is portrayed as the epitome of speciesism, prioritising his own morbid interests over the interests of his monster.
Euphemism
Meaning:
- Language used to imply something unpleasant
or impolite.
Effect:
- Euphemisms are used to mask the impoliteness
or rudeness of a remark
- It softens an uncomfortable topic.
- It is often used in Shakespeare as a symbol of a
character’s superior intellect
- It makes sure reader doesn’t linger too long on
a topic
Example:
In ‘Julius Caesar’ 1.2, Casca says that two men have been “put to silence”. This is a euphemism for death. Use of a euphemism makes the murder of two men seem much less harsh, and it ensures the reader doesn’t linger on the point for too long.
Foreshadowing
Effect:
- Foreshadowing increases narrative. tension by
giving readers an implication of what is to come. - This is especially potent when used to
foreshadow a distressing event while the plot is
calm.
Hyperbole
Effect:
- Hyperbole often adds an element of comedy and amusement to a text
- It allows an author to add excitement to a
tedious or mundane subject.
Example:
In ‘An Inspector Calls’, Preistley uses hyperbole when he says “millions and millions and millions of John Smiths and Eva Smiths”. His exaggeration is intended to emphasise to both the characters and the reader how common exploitation of the lower classes is.
Idiom
Meaning:
- An expression used by native speakers to mean
something other than its literal meaning.
Effect:
- Idioms are used to increase reader engagement
by establishing similarities between the text and normal speech.
- They are also used to establish character
backgrounds and personality, because idioms
vary from region to region.
Example:
In ‘Macbeth’, Lady Macbeth says “What’s done is done”, which emphasises that we cannot change the past. It adds to the gravity of the situation by implying there is nothing that can be done to fix it.
Imagery
Meaning:
- Visually descriptive language used to appeal to
the reader’s senses.
Effect:
- Using imagery increases reader engagement by
allowing them to use their imagination to put
themselves in the scene.
- If they can visualise the scene, they will become
more invested in the storyline.
It also appeals to the reader’s senses through
visually descriptive langauge further increasing
reader engagement
Irony
Meaning:
- expression of an emotion or thought by using language which typically means the opposite.
- It is often amusing, which injects a degree of comedy into a text.
Effect:
- Irony draws attention to a statement by bringing humour to a situation.
- It often also introduces a degree of foreboding.
Example:
In ‘A Christmas Carol’, Scrooge describes his father as cold, in an obvious bit of irony. The entire text revolves around Scrooge’s coldness, so it is ironic that his father’s coldness is something he considered definitive.
Juxtaposition
Meaning:
- Two opposing things placed next to each other
for contrast.
Effect:
- Juxtaposition is used to draw attention to the
differences between two things.
- It is useful for establishing character
personalities in the context of each other.
Metaphor
Effect:
- Metaphors draw the attention of the reader by engaging their imagination in their interpretation of the metaphor.
- They create more manageable images in the reader’s mind, thus further prompting engagement.
Microcosm
Meaning:
- A community or situation intended to represent
the characteristics of something much larger.
Effect:
- Microcosms are used to force the reader to
consider the bigger picture, making them
examine the wider picture as they read.
Example:
In ‘An Inspector Calls’, the Birling family’s mistreatment of Eva Smith acts as a microcosm for the upper class’s mistreatment of the lower classes.
Monologue
Effect:
- Monologues are often used to provide the
audience with more detail about a character or
plot point. They help to explain and progress
the text’s storyline.
Motif
Meaning:
- A repeating idea used to dictate tone and
emphasise themes.
Effect:
- Motifs help readers understand characters
better and it establishes the mood of the text.
- It is a key way of increasing reader engagement
with the text.
Example:
In ‘Jane Eyre’, the motif of fire and ice repeatedly appear to represent Jane’s fiery resolve and the oppressive forces that would see this extinguished.
Onomatopoeia
Effect:
- Onomatopoeia is often used in poetry to add
depth to the text.
- Using words that sound how they are written
engages the reader’s senses, encouraging
deeper emotional involvement.
Example:
In ‘Macbeth 5.8, use of the word “ripped” (in
“Macduff was from his mother’s womb
Untimely ripped”) is onomatopoeic, and instils a degree of horror in the reader.
Oxymoron
Meaning:
- A figure of speech in which two contradictory
terms are used consecutively.
Effect:
- Oxymorons are used to draw the reader’s
attention; the element of confusion they create
causes readers to stop and ponder the meaning
of the phrase.
Paradox
Meaning:
- A repeating idea used to dictate tone and
emphasise themes.
Effect:
- Motifs help readers understand characters better
- It establishes the mood of the text
- It is a key way of increasing reader engagement
with the text.
Example:
In Frankenstein’, a key paradox can be found in Victor’s motivations for creating a monster.
Despite the fact his motivations were partially a result of parental niges, he had no emotional connection to his monster.
Pathetic fallacy
Effect:
- When a character’s emotions are reflected in
their environment, it is easier for the reader to
understand and empathise with the character.
Pathos
Meaning:
- Evoking a certain feeling in the
reader/audience. Pathos is most often used for
feelings of sadness, or pity.
Effect:
- Pathos appeals to the emotions of the reader,
strengthening connections between the reader
and the characters, and thus increasing reader
engagement.
Example:
In ‘Animal Farm’, Old Major employs pathos to scare the animals into accepting his ideas.
Personification
Effect:
- Personification creates depth in a text by giving
a voice to otherwise silent, unmoving objects.
This allows the reader to become more fully
immersed in the text, maximising engagement.
Example:
Personification is used throughout ‘Macbeth’, most commonly when Macbeth is battling his own guilt. In 1.7, Macbeth personified Duncan’s virtues, stating “that his virtues / Will plead like angels, trumpet-tongued, against / The deep damnation of his taking-off”.
Plosive
Meaning:
- Harsh sounds associated with the letters p, t, k, b, d, and g which interrupt airflow by closing the mouth.
Effect:
- Plosive sounds are harsh, and help convey complex emotions like frustration and anger.
- This allows readers to more deeply understand the emotions at play in a scene.
Example:
In ‘Jano Eyre’, Mr Brocklohurst’s name begins with a plosive sound, foreshadowing his harsh and abrupt personality.
Political diatribe
Meaning: The way a text is written to criticise a political system or belief.
Effect:
- Political diatribes are used to encourage deeper thought from the reader about the topic at hand. - They are intended to force readers to scrutinise their own understanding of the topic.
Example:
Priestley uses ‘An Inspector Calls’ as a social and political diatribe to criticise the rigid class divides which are responsible for the exploitation of the lower classes.
Repetition
Meaning:
- Repeating something that has already been used. This applies to words, phrases, motifs etc.
Effect:
- Repetition is used to emphasise a point or motif.
- By repeating something over and over, it makes it clear that it is important to the text.
- If the repetition is of words/phrases, it draws the eye of the reader while simultaneously emphasising the importance of the idea.
Example:
In ‘Pride and Prejudice’, Elizabeth employs repetition in her letter when she says
“Dear Madam do not go. I beg you will not go
Her repetition reinforces her message.
Rhyme
Effect:
- Rhyming makes a text more interesting and more memorable
- it adds rhythm to a text.
- It can be used to invoke deeper emotion, or to emphasise how trivial an item/idea is.
Rhythm
Meaning:
- The way a writer arranges stressed and unstressed vowel sounds to dictate the way a text is read.
Effect:
- Like rhyme, rhythm makes a text more semantically and verbally appealing to a reader.
- Placing stressed vowels in specific locations allows a writer to make much more powerful arguments.
Example:
Shakespeare uses a specific rhythm in most of his plays known as iambic pentameter, which consists of 10 syllables to a line.
Satire
Meaning:
- Amusement towards a flawed subject as a commentary on its flaws.
Effect:
- Satire is most often used in literature to draw attention to political and social events.
Example:
In ‘A Christmas Carol, the ghost of Christmas present quotes Scrooge’s own words back to him; previously, Scrooge thought the “surplus population” should simply die to solve the issue, though he changes his mind when he meets Tiny Tim.
Simile
Effect:
- Similes work in much the same way as metaphors, drawing the attention of the reader by engaging their imagination.
- They create more manageable images in the reader’s mind, thus further prompting engagement.
Example:
In ‘An Inspector Calls’, Mr Birling says “as if we were all mixed up together like bees in a hive” This simile makes clear that Mr Birling feels no sense of camaraderie with the lower classes; he can’t even fathom them being in the same community, like bees in a hive”
Sibilance
Effect:
- Like alliteration, sibilance draws attention to certain phrases or sentences. It is frequently used to create a negative atmosphere.
Example:
In Romeo and Juliet, Romeo says “sad hours seem long”. The sibilance here emphasises the sadness Romeo feels.
Soliloquy
Meaning:
- A monologue intended only to be heard by the audience and the character speaking.
- They are most often used to explain the inner thoughts of a character.
Effect:
- Soliloquies give us insight into the internal happenings of characters in the play, often explaining things we otherwise wouldn’t have found out.
- Like monologues, soliloquies play a key role in progressing the storyline.
- They provide a key insight into a character’s mind helping the reader to understand more deeply feelings and actions
Symbolism
Effect:
- Symbolism is used to convey complex ideas in a relatively simple way.
- It gives the reader a visual to focus on, which becomes synonymous with the symbol; the reader will begin to think of the meaning each time they encounter the symbol.
Syntax
Meaning: The way words are arranged in a sentence.
Effect:
- Syntax helps writers establish mood and tone
- It works in combination with diction to express the writer’s thoughts and feelings on a topic.
Example:
The syntax used in ‘A Christmas Carol’ is incredibly descriptive, which is both a product of the novel’s time, and Dickens’s way of encouraging reader engagement.
Tone
Meaning:
- The literary manifestation of an author’s thoughts and feelings on a certain topic.
- This encompasses diction and use of other devices.
Effect:
- Tone reflects the author’s feelings, and thus it creates a connection between the reader and the author.
- Devices are often used to create a relationship between the reader and characters in the text, but tone gives us more of an insight into the writer.
Example:
The tone of ‘Lord of the Flies’ is slightly detached and aloof, which represents the boys’ outlook on the world; they are not yet aware of the severity of their situation.
