Language and Social Groups Flashcards
A prestige variety is a type of language that carries _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ connotations
Positive
A stigmatised variety is one that carries _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ connotations
Negative
Accent describes the _ _ _ _ _ _ that people make when they pronounce words.
Sounds
English has one non-regional accent. What is it?
Received Pronunciation
Which social class is Received Pronunciation often associated with?
Upper or Middle Class. NOT WORKING CLASS
Dialect describes the _ _ _ _ _ and _ _ _ _ _ _ _ that people use
Words and grammar
English has a non-regional dialect. What is it?
Standard English
What is the prestige dialect of British English?
Standard English
The prestige of a variety describes the _ _ _ _ _ that members of a speech community place on it.
Value
R.P. and Standard English have ‘_ _ _ _ prestige’ because they’re associated with rich, educated, powerful or successful people.
high
This kind of prestige that R.P and Standard English is called ‘_ _ _ _ _ prestige’ as the benefits it brings, such as a positive social image, are obvious.
Overt
Non-prestige forms sometimes have ‘_ _ _ _ _ _ prestige.’ This means that speakers maintain the use of non-prestige forms in order to appear tough or to display pride and loyalty to one’s class or home.
Covert
Working class varieties of speech (for examples those of Liverpool or Birmingham) are often the most ‘_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ varieties.’
Stigmatised
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ varieties have low social status and they carry with them connotations of unemployment, poverty, criminality, lack of sophistication, lack of education and lack of ambition.
Stigmatised
Prescriptivism attemps to say what language _ _ _ _ _ _ be like
should
Descriptivism attempts to say what language is _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ like rather than what it should be like.
actually
Descriptivist don’t refer to right and wrong or good and bad in language but instead describe language’s A _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ NESS
appropriateness
Prescriptivists tend to correct people into _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ English and RP-like forms
standard
What would you call the following term: I haven’t got nothing.
Multiple negation
What is the name of the theorist who studied restricted and elaborate code?
Basil Bernstein
Bernstein claimed that the differences in language used were caused by the kinds of language working and middle class children _ _ _ _ _ and used
heard
Restricted Code is the kind of language family and friends use in _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ settings
informal
Restricted code is I _ _ _ _ _ _ T . It relies on you being close to and familiar with the people you’re speaking to.
implicit
Bernstein observed that working class pupils tended to stay more in their _ _ _ _ area
home
Elaborated Code is far more E _ _ _ _ _ _ T
explicit
Elaborated code doesn’t assume any shared background or prior _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
knowledge
Because middle class speakers have a wider variety of contexts with lots of different speakers, there was a need for them to learn which code?
Elaborated code
Bernstein believed that _ _ _ _ _ did, to some extent, determine the language we use
class
Because Bernstein claimed that middle class speakers changed code according to their audience, it suggests that it’s not class but _ _ _ _ _ _ _ that determines the language used.
context
Bernstein claimed that both codes are useful and neither is?
wrong
Restricted code is E _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ L , as it conveys a vast amount of meaning with a few words
economical
Which code spells everything out, is complete and full of detail.
elaborate code
Bernstein found that all families use restricted code, but which social class tend only to use restricted code
working class
Because the language used in schools is mainly elaborated code, Bernstein, argues that this gives middle-class children an A _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _?
advantage
Bernstein says that the language used in schools is mainly which code?
elaborate code
What is the name of the theorist who conducted the Norwich Study?
Peter Trudgill
Trudgill studied which consonant in words like walking and running?
The final consonant
In standard British English, the sound spelled “ng” is a _ _ _ _ _ nasal
velar nasal
The /n/ sound is an _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ nasal
alveolar nasal
Using the alveolar nasal (/n/) rather than the velar nasal is called what?
g-dropping
What is the symbol for the alveolar nasal sound?
/n/
What is the symbol for the velar nasal sound?
An n with a curl on the bottom of the right hand line
Trudghill found that there is a direct link between social class and a _ _ _ _ _
accent
Trudgill found that there is a direct _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ between class and use of the “ng” sound
correlation
Trudgill found that the _ _ _ _ _ _ the class, the more you use it.
higher
What do all the social classes adjust, according to the style they’re speaking in?
g- dropping or the alveolar nasal
What is sociolinguistics the study of?
Language in Society
What is the term for a language style associated with a social group, class or subculture?
Sociolect
Name 3 of Anna-Brita Stenstrom’s features of teen language
Irregular turn-taking, Overlaps, Indistinct articulation, Word shortenings, Teasing & name calling, Verbal Duelling, Slang, Taboo Lexis, Code switching
When people switch dialects (often) in mid conversation - what do we call it?
Code switching
What is the term for our own individual language style?
Idiolect
Who came up with Social Network Theory in 1980?
Milroy and Milroy
What do Milroy and Milroy mean by a social network?
A community of language users
What is a closed social network?
A network where contacts generally all know one another
What is an open social network?
A network where contacts do not necessarily know one another
What type of social network would your close family be?
A closed network
What type of social network would the Upper Sixth at Aquinas College be?
An open network
Milroy & Milroy stated that language was less varied in what type of network?
A closed network. Stronger ties create more convergance.
Milroy & Milroy stated that language was more varied in what type of network?
An open network. Weaker ties mean less convergance.
When contacts in a social network know each other in more than one way was called M_ _ _ _ P _ _ _ _ _Y by Milroy and Milroy
Multiplexity
Where and when did Lesley Milroy conduct her research for the Belfast Study?
In three working-class communities in Belfast, Northern Ireland in 1980
How did Lesley Milroy measure the integration of individuals within their Belfast communities?
Milroy gave each individual a Network Strength Score based on their knowledge of other people in the community, the workplace, and at leisure activities, assigning a score from 1 to 5, with 5 being the highest
What linguistic features did Lesley Milroy focus on in her analysis of the Belfast communities?
Milroy measured each person’s use of several linguistic variables, including (th) as in mother and (a) as in hat
What was the general finding regarding the relationship between Network Strength Score and the use of non-standard language forms in Milroy’s Belfast study?
A high Network Strength Score was correlated with the increased use of non-standard forms of the linguistic variables she studied. This often meant that men with tight-knit social networks used more non-standard forms
What were the findings regarding gender differences in language use in Milroy’s Belfast study?
Were there any exceptions?
Milroy found that men’s speech revealed a higher usage of non-standard forms, while these forms were less evident in women’s speech due to women belonging to less dense social networks.
However, in the Hammer and Clonard areas, more women than expected tended to use the non-standard form of (a) as in hat.
How did Lesley Milroy explain the exceptions where women in certain Belfast communities used more non-standard forms than men?
Milroy explained this exception by pointing to the social pressures and circumstances in the Hammer and Clonard areas, which had high unemployment. This led to a blurring of sex roles, with men sharing domestic tasks and women going out to work, often forming dense and multiplex networks where they lived, worked, and socialised together, leading to the maintenance of local dialect forms
What was Lesley Milroy’s key conclusion about the primary influence on an individual’s use of local dialect forms?
How closely or loosely knit the social group a person belonged to was the primary factor determining their use of the local dialect forms, often overriding differences based on gender or social class
What linguistic feature did Vera Regan study, and why was it significant in understanding spoken language?
The discourse marker “like” in spoken language. She examined how its use varied across different speakers and what it revealed about social identity and language change.
What methods did Regan use to collect data on how people use discourse markers like “like”?
Regan conducted sociolinguistic interviews where she recorded natural conversations. She then analysed how and when speakers used “like” in their speech.
What did Regan’s research reveal about the use of “like” among younger speakers compared to older speakers?
Regan found that younger speakers used “like” more frequently than older speakers, suggesting it is a feature of language change and is more common among newer generations.
According to Regan’s findings, how does the use of discourse markers like “like” relate to a speaker’s social identity?
The use of “like” is linked to youth identity and informal speech styles. It also helps speakers signal belonging to a particular social group.
What evidence did Regan provide to challenge the idea that using “like” is simply a sign of poor language skills?
Regan’s research showed that “like” follows specific linguistic patterns and serves important conversational functions, such as softening statements, adding emphasis, or structuring speech. This challenges the stereotype that it is meaningless or a sign of poor grammar.
What did Regan’s research reveal about the use of discourse markers like “like” among Polish immigrants in Ireland?
Regan found that Polish immigrants who had lived in Ireland for longer and were more integrated into Irish social networks used “like” more frequently. This suggested that adopting discourse markers like “like” was a sign of linguistic assimilation and helped speakers sound more native-like in their new environment.
How does the positioning of “like” in Irish English differ from its placement in other varieties of English worldwide?
In Irish English, “like” is often placed at the end of a clause (e.g., “It was a great day, like.”) CLAUSE MARGINAL whereas in other varieties, it is more commonly used before a noun or verb (e.g., “It was, like, a great day.”). CLAUSE MEDIAL
Which three New York department stores did Labov conduct his research in, and why did he choose them?
Saks Fifth Avenue (high-end), Macy’s (mid-range), and S. Klein (lower-end) in New York City. He chose these stores because they catered to different social classes, allowing him to observe linguistic variation linked to socioeconomic status.
What specific linguistic feature did Labov investigate in New York, and what did he find about its use across social classes?
Labov studied the pronunciation of the post-vocalic “r” (e.g., in “fourth floor”). He found that higher social classes used the “r” sound more frequently, while lower social classes tended to omit it. Middle-class speakers were more likely to hypercorrect their speech by emphasizing the “r” in careful speech.
What research method did Labov use to collect his data in New York, and why was it effective?
Labov used a covert observation technique, asking store employees for the location of an item on the “fourth floor”, then noting their pronunciation. This was effective because it captured natural speech in both casual and careful styles without participants knowing they were being studied.
Why did Labov conclude that the higher social classes in New York used the post vocalic ‘r’ sound more frequently?
To gain overt prestige.
John Swales described a group of people engaged in similar activities as a D _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ C _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Discourse Community
Swales defined a discourse community as having a S _ _ _ _ _ set of common G _ _ _ _
A Shared set of common goals
Swales said that a discourse community uses specialist V _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ and D _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Vocabulary and discourse
Swales said that to be a member of a discourse community, speakers needed a required level of K _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ & E _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Knowledge and expertise
What do Lave and Wenger call a group of people engaged in a shared activity or practice, whose language is shaped by the activities they are mutually engaged in.
Community of practice
Lave and Wenger state that: A Community of Practice is defined by both its m_ _ _ _ _ _ _ and the p _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .
Members and the practices
Lave and Wenger state that when people come together around mutual engagement in some common endeavour in a community of practice they develop what?
They develop ways of doing things, ways of talking, beliefs, values and power relations (i.e., practices) that emerge from their joint activity.
What was the primary focus of Emma Moore’s Bolton study?
To conduct a detailed ethnographic study following girls at a school in Bolton over a two-year period - studying their language personal appearance, social circles, activities, and attitudes towards different groups.
Who were the participants in Moore’s Bolton study, and what were their general social class backgrounds?
The participants were girls at a school in Bolton. They all came from ‘upper working class’ or ‘lower middle class’ social backgrounds.
What specific linguistic feature did Emma Moore analyse in the speech of the participants?
The use of the non-standard form of the verb ‘were’.
How did Emma Moore group the participants in her Bolton study?
Moore identified four groups or ‘Communities of Practice’ (CofP) within the school based on the girls’ shared activities and attitudes. These groups were: the Populars (rebellious, anti-school), the Townies (emerged from Populars, riskier activities), the Geeks (‘institutionally orientated’, school activities), and the Eden Valley girls (from a desirable area, school-orientated).
What were the key findings regarding the Eden Valley girls’ use of standard and non-standard ‘was/were’?
Moore found that the seven Eden Valley girls used standard ‘was’ almost all of the time. This was the only CofP where all speakers were from the higher social group in the study.
What was distinctive about the Townies’ use of non-standard ‘were’?
The Townies highly favoured the use of non-standard ‘were’. All four members came from both social class groups in the study and had local connections. Moore suggested this was linked to their more rebellious social practices and their social networks including boys from working-class areas where this dialect feature was maintained.
What broader conclusion did Moore’s study suggest about the relationship between social factors and language use?
Moore’s study indicated that while social class had some influence (as seen with the Eden Valley girls), the use of non-standard ‘were’ among the adolescents was more closely linked to their membership and engagement within their specific ‘Communities of Practice’. Their shared activities, attitudes, and social networks within these groups played a significant role in their language choices.
What was the setting and who were the main participant groups in Penelope Eckert’s “Jocks and Burnouts” study?
The study was set in a suburban Detroit high school. Eckert identified two groups of teenagers: the ‘Jocks’ and the ‘Burnouts’.
How did Eckert define the ‘Jocks’ in terms of their social characteristics and involvement in school life?
The ‘Jocks’ were generally associated with school-sponsored activities, higher social status, and adherence to school norms. They embodied middle-class culture and actively participated in school clubs and sports.
How did Eckert define the ‘Burnouts’ in terms of their social characteristics and involvement in school life?
The ‘Burnouts’ were associated with resistance to school culture, lower social status, and non-school activities. They typically embodied the working-class culture, did not actively involve themselves in school life, and often displayed an anti-school point of view.
What was the language feature that Eckert focused on in relation to the ‘Jocks’ and ‘Burnouts’?
Eckert noticed a difference in vowel variation amongst the teenagers in the two groups.
What was Eckert’s key finding regarding the relationship between language differences and social groups (specifically social class) versus ‘Communities of Practice’?
Eckert found that language differences were more closely linked to communities of practice rather than to specific social differences like class, ethnicity, or gender. She observed that students were more likely to speak like others who shared their interests and activities than like those who shared their social demographic.
Why did Polari evolve and what were some of the ways it was used?
Polari evolved as a secret language because homosexuality was stigmatised by law, medicine, and religion, providing a way for gay men to express themselves without being caught.
Who created the term “anti-language” in 1978 to describe how stigmatised subcultures develop languages that help them to reconstruct reality according to their own values?
Michael Halliday
True or false? Polari is an example of an anti-language.
True
Who conducted research to find out if specific business lexis existed?
Michael Nelson
What were 3 of the semantic fields Michael Nelson found most in business lexis?
Business, people, companies, institutions, money, time & technology
What topics did Nelson find business lexis avoided?
Personal topics
Nelson’s research showed a significant lack of N _ _ _ _ _ _ _ lexis in business communication.
Negative
Drew and Heritage came up with their theory of I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ L talk - referring to 6 characteristics of workplace speech.
Institutional Talk
Drew and Heritage’s 6 characteristics of workplace speech were:
Goal orientation, Turn-taking rules, Allowable contributions, Professional lexis, Structure and Asymmetry
