Language and Gender Flashcards
Deficit Model
Spender (1980)
Author of Man Made Language
Due to patriarchal society - language favours men
* Male firstness - Masculine terms put first
* * Men and Women, Mr. and Mrs., e.t.c.
~~~
Language helps form limits of our reality > Means of ordering, classifying and manipulating the world
~~~
Men percieved as dominant by themselves so opress women by labelling them as abnormal and further degrading language used to refer to them
- No positively viewed language about sex in terms of women - “slag”, “frigid, “nymphomaniac”
- Men have terms for “sexual power” such as “potent” or “virile”
Lookied at grammar rules from 18th and 16th century and applied own op
Women are taught/use language differntly due to position in patriarchal society - vued inferior due to males constructing language
Deficit Model
Schulz (1975)
Said that the greater number of negative terms for women embodies the patriarchal order of society
Women terms go through semantic derogation of women
Suffix - “ess” - implication of either belonging to a male or being lesser (“princess”)
Deficit Model
Lakoff (1975)
Women talk differently to men
Were taught to use language differently and though it suppresed women’s identities
Use features differently to men which shows their powerlessness:
* Modal Constructions
* Question Intonation
* Empty adjectvies - lovely, adorable
* Indirect Commands and Requests
Observed conversations between white, middle-aged, higher class women
Women speak differently to men and features of their language shows their inferiority
Deficit Model
Jespersen (1922)
“Language: It’s Nature, Development & Origin”
- Break off without finishing sentences
- Lively chatter because they don’t need to think as much during tasks - washing, cleaning etc.
Devoted a chapter to women in a book about language use
Women use language differently than men as they have different thinking capacities compared to men
Deficit Model
O’Barr and Atkins (1980)
Courtroom Study
Against Lakoffs idea that women were using language of powerlessness
- People who were viewed as lower socially or from an inferior position used such features, including men
Women use such language because of their position in society
Listened to recordings from a courtroom
Women use language differently than men due to position in society
Dominance Model
Zimmerman & West (1975)
University Coffee Shops Study
Men are responsible for 96% of interruptions in conversations occurring between men and women
Men - seem to speak more, have longer turns
* In conversations with women - are interrupted less and interrupt more
Recorded 11 everyday conversations in informal settings, such as coffee
Different between the two genders
Dominance Model
Beattie (1981)
Disproved Zimmerman & West study
- Found not much difference in the two genders cutting off other people - equal frecuency of interuptions
Made a larger version of the study (x10)
No difference in language use between gender
Dominance Model
Fishman(1980)
Conversational Shitwork
Mixed gender conversations sometimes fail because of how men respond/don’t respond.
Conversation is more problematic for women as:
* Must work harder to make it happen
Talk is less problematic for men as:
* Exert control over when and how it will occur
- Challenges Lakoff
Women do use more features highlighted by Lakoff - because they are trying to keep male conversational partners engaged
- not due to insecurity
Women use questions to gain conversational power
* Given men respond minimally to declarative statements from women
52 hours of pre-recorded conversations of young American Couples
Men and Women don’t speak differently - They just have different ways of using language given purpose
Difference Model
Tannen (1990)
“You Just Don’t Understand: Women and Men in Conversation”
Men and Women Learn to speak differently to men - “Different Languages”
* They can say the same thing but mean something different - leading to miscommunication and breakdown of conversations
Men use language to Report
* Make evaluative Judgements
Features:
* Status
* Indpendence
* Advice
* Information
Women use language for Rapport
* Build relationships
Features:
* Support
* Intimacy
* Uderstanding
* Feelings
Interrupt and Overlap:
Women - Alignment and Balance
Men - Power and Status
Women and men use language differently due to purpose of conversation - therefore different
Difference Model
Holmes (1988)
Politeness & Compliments
* Women use more positively oriented politeness strategies
* * Women use compliments socially to build connections
* * Social Function - keeping in touch
- Men use more negatively oriented politeness strategies
- Men use compliments competitively to make
evaluative judgments - Referential function - give and obtain information
Women are more polite and complimentary than men given >
*Men see compliments as face-threatening (Having another agenda or unsaid purpose)
Men and Women use language for different purposes therefore it is different
Dfference Model
Holmes (1994)
Tag Questions
Affective used more by Women - aren’t you?
Modal used more by Men - isn’t it?
Women use more tag questions overall
Showing concern rather than weakness
* Suggests that women’s conversation is caring and intimate - not weak
Language is different between men and women as the needs behing the language are different - Inherent characteristics for each gender
Butler (1990)
“Gender Trouble”
Constantly constructing gender - we do gender, not what we are
Gender is a set of rules devised by society which people are forced to be part of and taught it from a young age - confuse between nature and nurture
Use for saying gender affects - Taught language differently based on gender
Use for saying gender doesn’t affect - If the persons dender isn’t true then how they speak isn’t linked to gender
Diversity Model
Eckert + McConnell-Ginet (1992)
Communities of practice are: “An aggregate of people who come together around
mutual engagement in some common endeavour.” and this is really important
for looking at language and gender
- Important to look at language and gender in terms of other variables, not just gender
Gender is too small of a group to base language use on - other factors affect this
Diversity Model
Cheshire (1982)
Reading Study
Divided girl and boy group into bad and good - 4 groups overall
Bad = positive attitudes to carrying weapons, fighting, participation in minor criminal activities (and vice versa for good)
As well as answers to: preferred job, dress and hairstyle, and use of swearing
Good groups used less nonstandard variation compared to Bad groups but there were clear signs of conformity coming from all groups in order to fit in
- Conforming boys conformed most of all
How groups used 11 grammatical variables and the variation within group
Shows languge of the group is an integral part of the group
Diversity Model
Baxter (2010)
“Double-voiced discourse” - “Double-Voicing”
An essential survival strategy in a man's world
Single-voiced discourse meant to name, inorm express and represent the topic to which it refers
Double-voiced discourse has a double agenda - represent topic and take account of views and concers
* Defines “linguistic second guessing”
Women more appologetic when broaching a difficult subject with board members or when managing conflict
Performance happened based on gender
