Language and Gender Flashcards

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1
Q

Who is Robin Lakoff and what was the ‘Deficit Theory’?

A
  • First linguistic to look specifically at the relationship between gender + language
  • Argued that women’s lang use reflected their comparative lack of status

Lakoff claimed that women:

  • Speak less (than men)
  • Use fewer expletives (“oh dear…”, “oh my…”)
  • Use more correct grammar
  • Use more polite forms (“would you mind”, “I’d appreciate it if…”)
  • Apologise more
  • Don’t ‘get’ jokes as much
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2
Q

In the Deficit Theory, what else did Lakoff claim women did?

A
  • Hedge (meaning a way of softening what’s being said, avoiding getting to the point - “It’s kind of”, “It’s a bit”)
  • Use diminutives (embellished words, e.g. cutie, sweetie, etc.)
  • Use tag questions (when a statement gets turned into a question, e.g. adding “isn’t it?” at the end
  • Use question intonation at the end of statements, expressing uncertainty
  • Speak in italics (adding emphasis to words)
  • Use more empty adjectives
  • Having a wider range of descriptive adjectives, particularly colours
  • Use more intensifiers
  • Use modals more
  • Use ‘Wh’ imperatives
  • Avoid direct requests
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3
Q

Who was Deborah Tannen and what was the ‘Difference Model’?

A
  • Acknowledges men + women each use lang in specific ways because they’re socialised differently
  • Men + women are socialised differently = The Difference Model
  • The differences aren’t specific because men have more power than women, but because men + women want different things out of their conversations
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4
Q

What are ‘The Six Contrasts’?

A

Tannen divided up the differences between male and female speech styles into six contrasts:

  • Independence vs Intimacy
  • Status vs Support
  • Information vs Feelings
  • Orders vs Proposals
  • Advice vs Understanding
  • Conflict vs Compromise
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5
Q

What is meant by ‘Independence vs Intimacy’?

A
  • Women often think in terms of closeness + support and struggle to preserve.
    Men, concerned w/ status, tend to focus more on independence

E.g. A women asking her husband before inviting a guest over, whereas the man wouldn’t ask his wife, because if he told his friend he had to check, this amounts to a loss of status

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6
Q

What is meant by ‘Advice vs Understanding’?

A
  • For men, a complaint is often a demand for solution, rather than a request for sympathy
  • E.g. “When my mother tells my father she doesn’t feel well, he invariably offers to take her to the doctor. She’s disappointed with his reaction; like many men, he’s focused on what he can do, but she just wants sympathy”
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7
Q

What is meant by ‘Information vs Feelings’?

A
  • Men tend to communicate more facts + info than talk about feelings + emotions
  • Women tend to be more overt about how they think and feel
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8
Q

What is meant by ‘Orders vs Proposals’?

A
  • Women tend to phrase things as questions, saying “Why don’t we…” or “Wouldn’t it be good if…”
  • Men are more likely to use a direct imperative
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9
Q

What is meant by ‘Conflict vs Compromise’?

A
  • Women will try to prevent outright fighting by acquiescing or saying they agree w/ something, even if they don’t
  • This can store up resentment and cause more issues further down the line
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10
Q

What did Tannen mean by ‘Report vs Rapport’?

A
  • Tannen suggested that men’s lang can be categorised as ‘Report talk’ whilst women’s lang can be categorised as ‘Rapport talk’
  • Tannen summed up the difference between male and female speech:

Women:

  • Speak in private contexts
  • Talk too much
  • Build relations
  • Overlap
  • Speak symmetrically

Men:

  • Speak in public
  • Get more air time
  • Negotiate status/avoid failure
  • Speak one at a time
  • Speak asymmetrically
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11
Q

How does Gender affect our language?

A

Jespersen, 1922:

Women’s lang is a projection of their deficiency compared to the male norm; their lang is deficient because they have an innate deficiency

What characteristics make women's lang as deficient?
 Talk a lot
-Tend toward hyperbole
- Have a smaller vocab
- Use empty + base adjectives
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12
Q

What characteristics did Lakoff say make women’s lang deficient and what criticisms occurred?

A
  • Hedge more
  • Use more tag questions
  • Use indirect speech
  • Use empty + base adjectives
  • Use more euphemisms
  • Use polite forms + apologetic phrasing

Criticism: O’Barr + Atkins (1980) looked at lang used in courtrooms + found that deficiency in lang is more to do with power than gender. Coined the term ‘Powerless lang”

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13
Q

What did Zimmerman and West find? What criticisms occurred?

A

In mixed-sex convos, men are more likely to interrupt than women. Men are dominating (or attempting to) the convo

Criticism: Beattie (1982) questioned why interruptions reflected dominance, why not interest? Conducted own study and found that men + women interrupt w/ more or less equal frequency

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14
Q

What was O’Barr + Atkins ‘Powerless Language’ Theory?

A
  • They’re best known for developing the idea that lang is specific, depending on who has authority+power as opposed to gender
  • E.g. in an interview, if a man were interviewing a woman, then the man would be more assertive in the conversation, not because of gender, but because of his authority+power
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15
Q

What was Beattie’s ‘Interruptions’ Theory?

A
  • Recorded some 10 hours of tutorial discussions + some 557 interruptions
  • Found that women + men interrupted with more or less equal frequency (men 34.1 , women 33.8)
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16
Q

What was Coates ‘Hedges, minimal responses + turn-taking’ Theory?

A
  • Examined the functionality of the language development of both genders
  • Makes comparisons between different different age groups, coming to the conclusion, “Men purse a style of interaction based on power, while women pursue a style based on solidarity + support”
17
Q

What was Kuiper ‘Insults and Face’ Theory?

A
  • Found that in all male talk amongst members of a rugby team, they were more likely to pay less attention to the need to save face and instead used insults as a way of expressing solidarity
  • Similar findings on all male talk have also highlighted this difference in cooperation amongst all male grouped
18
Q

What was Fishman’s ‘Questions’ theory?

A
  • Fishman states that women frequently use tag questions when following a thought or suggestion
  • Argues that women use questions to gain conversational power
  • Says that questions don’t signal uncertainty or powerlessness, but are instead one of a variety of tools used by women as it means of keeping the conversation going
19
Q

What was Hyde’s ‘Gender Similarities’ theory?

A
  • Men + women are more alike than they are different
  • A few notable exceptions are some aspects of sexuality, which show large gender differences and aggression (which shows a moderate gender difference)
  • Gender differences can vary substantially at different ages and depend on the context in which measurement occurs (Diversity)
20
Q

What are the 4 main models for Language and Gender?

A

4 Main models:

  • Deficit (Lakoff)
  • Dominance (Deborah Cameron)
  • Difference (Deborah Tannen)
  • Diversity (Tannen)
21
Q

What is the main line of argument for the Deficit theory?

A

Main line of argument: Women have inferior language

22
Q

What is the main line of argument for the Dominance theory?

A

Main line of argument: In mixed-sex conversation, men are more likely to interrupt

23
Q

What is the main line of argument for the Difference theory?

A

Main line of argument: Men + women have different roles in conversation so they use language differently

24
Q

What is the main theory of argument for the Diversity theory?

A

Main line of argument: Gender is just one aspect of our identities that make up our language, not all men + women speak the same