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Metabolic Endocrinology > LABS > Flashcards

LABS Flashcards

1
Q

description of first microscope with “high” magnification and good image quality

A
  • beads of molten glass were used as lenses which were mounted in a metal late that had an adjustable stage on which the specimen to be examined was mounted
  • natural light or light from candle flame was used to illuminate the specimen
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2
Q

what are the important parts of the compound microscope

A
  • objective lenses of different magnifications
  • stage
  • illuminator
  • coarse focus knob
  • fine focus knob
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3
Q

what is the cell theory

A

all plant and animal tissues are composed of cells, the ultimate units of living organisms

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4
Q

cells are the smallest potentially independent unit of a living organism. however, cells contain even smaller structures ____ which are potentially independent

A

organelles

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5
Q

which are the 4 types of tissues?

A
  • epithelial tissue
  • connective tissue
  • muscle tissue
  • nervous tissue
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6
Q

endocrine organs are made up of _____

A

epithelial tissue

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7
Q

what is used during fixation

A

formaldehyde, alcohol or Bouin’s fluid

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8
Q

what are the steps involved in making paraffin sections

A
  • sampling
  • fixation
  • dehydration
  • clearing
  • infiltration (impregnation)
  • sectioning
  • staining
  • dehydration and clearing
  • mounting
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9
Q

what is used during clearing

A

removal of alcohol with xylem

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10
Q

what is used for infiltration (impregnation)

A

paraffin

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11
Q

which divide is used for sectioning?

A

microtome

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12
Q

what are the steps involved in staining paraffin sections

A
  • remove wax(paraffin)w with xylem
  • hydrate with decreasing concentration of alcohol
  • staining
  • dehydration
  • clearing
  • mounting
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13
Q

which are the most common dyes used in staining/histology

A

Hematoxylin and eosin

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14
Q

hematoxylin with mordants [metallic ion which helps dye to stick to what it’s staining] stains _____

A

acidic structure (nucleic acids, nuclei, RER) blue

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15
Q

Eosin stains ____

A

basic structures (proteins and membranes) pink

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16
Q

advantage and disadvantage of frozen sectioning

A

can see real anatomy but very short half-life due to faster degradation

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17
Q

why do we want to measure hormones

A
  • to understand hormone dynamics and function
  • to diagnose hyper or hypofunction
  • to determine efficacy of hormonal treatment
  • to determine abuse
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18
Q

what are the current methods of hormone assays

A
  • antibody based assays

- liquid-chromatography mass-spectrometry based assays

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19
Q

what are the two types of antibody based assays

A
  • competitive binding assays

- immunometric assays

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20
Q

relationship between proportion of antigen attaching to antibody and original concentration

A

directly proportional

ie. the amount of a given antigen that ends up binding on antibody depends on its proportion in the first place

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21
Q

what gives the signal in ELISA

A

the detection antibody that has tagged enzyme which, when given its substrate, will give a color/fluorescence

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22
Q

what is the advantage of ELISA compared to RIA

A

the danger of radioactivity is removed

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23
Q

what are the advantages of immunoassays

A
  • widely used, trusted, and relatively easy to troubleshoot
  • relatively inexpensive, flexible and scalable
  • good sensitivity and specificity
  • works in complex samples containing multiple antigens [don’t have to purify medium ie. serum]
  • dynamic range depending on analyze
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24
Q

disadvantages of immunoassays

A
  • poor antibody specificity can lead to over estimations
  • range is somewhat limited
  • very difficult to identify any post-translational modification
  • multi-step process and time consuming
  • intra- and inter-lab variation
  • running costs can be high due to reagent usage
  • sample volumes can be high
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25
Q

what is the principle behind liquid-chromatography mass-spectrometry based assays

A

HPLC separation of analyze involves the interaction between mobile phase (analyze) with solid phase. Separation is based on polarity, charge or size of the analyte

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26
Q

principle of MS

A

adds charge to hormone we are looking at -> ionization
once the hormone is ionized, they can be passed through a magnetic field where their mass analysis can be done based on their mass to charge ratio => each macromolecule has a characteristic mass to charge ratio

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27
Q

does post-translational modification affect peaks appearing on MS?

A

yes, post-translational modification changes ionizability and mass to charge ratio and time point in which their peak will shift

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28
Q

what are the advantages of LC-MS?

A
  • did not need antibodies

- measure multiple things at the same time in given matrix

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29
Q

what are some precautions that must be taken into account during hormone assays?

A
  • circadian and ultradian rhythms
  • lab-specific/technique-specific range
  • need for correlation with symptoms/history during interpretation
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30
Q

where are the neurons producing the hormones found?

A

found in the hypothalamus

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31
Q

which stain is used for the brain?

A

Cresyl Violet

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32
Q

what does a nucleus in the brain refer to?

A

are where there is a higher density of neurons, potentially part of a particular process (sleep, memory)

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33
Q

which are the most common nuclei found in the hypothalamus

A
  1. PVN- paraventricular nucleus
  2. VMH- ventromedial hypothalamus
  3. Arc- Arcuate nucleus
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34
Q

which neurons are found in the PVN nucleus? and where do they terminate

A

Somatostatin, CRH, TRH neurons which terminate in the median eminence
Vasopressin and Oxytocin neurons that terminate in posterior pituitary

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35
Q

which neurons does the Arc nucleus have

A

GHRH and GnRH neurons

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36
Q

which neurons are found in the VMH nucleus

A

estrogen and progesterone receptor expressing neurons and neurons that regulate feeding behaviour and metabolism

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37
Q

what kind of cells are found in the anterior pituitary?

A
  • acidophils [PINK]: somatotrophs (GH) and lactotrophs (prolactin)
  • basophils [BLUE/PURPLE]: Corticotrophs, thyrotrophs, gonadotrophs
  • chromophobes (not endocrine, weak staining)
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38
Q

the anterior pituitary is vascularized, true or false?

A

true, we can see blood vessels/capillaries containing RBCs (no nuclei therefore no blue spots)

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39
Q

can you differentiate somatotrophs from lactotrophs?

A

no, they both stain pink and are referred to as acidophils

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40
Q

what color do acidophils stain?

A

PINK

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41
Q

what color do basophils stain?

A

Bluish-purple

42
Q

what can be found in the small area between the anterior and posterior pituitary?

A

Rathke’s cyst

43
Q

do we find endocrine cells in the posterior pituitary?

A

no, we mainly find glial cells called Pituicytes and herring bodies which are cross-sections of axons coming from hypothalamic neurons

44
Q

what are herring bodies found in the posterior pituitary?

A

enlarged axonal regions from hypothalamic neurons that contain vesicles that ave posterior pituitary hormones

45
Q

why does the anterior pituitary stain dark and the posterior pituitary stain light?

A

anterior is made up of various endocrine cells which stain dark and the posterior stains light because it is mostly nervous tissue (axons terminating)

46
Q

how many lobes of thyroid glands does each person have

A

2 lobes

47
Q

what type of tissue connects the two lobes of the thyroid gland?

A

connective tissue

48
Q

what is the capsule of the an endocrine organ

A

the capsule is the thin layer of connective tissue that surrounds the organ, giving it a shape

49
Q

what are trabecular found in the thyroid gland

A

connective tissue that extends inwards from the capsule to partially outline irregular lobules

50
Q

what is the functional unit of the thyroid gland

A

thyroid follicle [circular structure]

51
Q

what is a follicle in the thyroid gland

A

it is a round structure surrounded by follicular cells creating a fluid filled cavity containing proteins

52
Q

can we see blood vessels in the thyroid gland?

A

yes, we can observe some capillaries

53
Q

_____ produce thyroid hormones

A

follicular cells

54
Q

what is the liquid found inside the follicle cavity called

A

colloid

55
Q

____ production calcitonin

A

parafollicular cells

56
Q

what are parafollicular cells

A

cells that are outside follicle - they appear slightly larger compared to follicular cells
involved in calcium metabolism

57
Q

where are the parathyroid glands located?

A

located on the food poles backside of the thyroid

58
Q

thyroid and parathyroid glands are dependent endocrine organs. true or false?

A

false, they are undefended endocrine organs although you always find parathyroid gland on thyroid gland

59
Q

the parathyroid gland also contains a capsule and trabecular, similar to that of thyroid gland. true or false

A

true

60
Q

which cells are the most abundant in the parathyroid gland

A

chief cells

61
Q

chief cells produce _____

A

parathyroid hormone

62
Q

what is the second type of cell found in the parathyroid gland?

A

oxyphil cells

63
Q

oxyphil cells have an endocrine fucntion. true or flase

A

false

64
Q

what are the three cells found in the parathyroid gland?

A
  • chief cells
  • oxyphil cells
  • adipose cells
65
Q

what are the two parts making up the adrenal gland?

A

the medulla (most inner part) and the cortex

66
Q

the adrenal gland has a _____ giving it its shape

A

capsule of connective tissue

67
Q

the blood vessels appearing in the periphery penetrate the capsule of the adrenal gland and branch into ______ supplying the cortex and medulla

A

sinusoid capillaries

68
Q

the cortex of the adrenal gland appears ___ whereas the medulla appears ___

A

cortex: pink
medulla: purple

69
Q

the cortex si made up of 3 zones which are:

A
  1. zona glomerulosa (outer most zone)
  2. zona fasciculata (middle zone)
  3. zona reticularis (inner most zone, closest to medulla)
70
Q

what type of cell structure makes up the zona glomerulosa?

A

glomerular-like clusters of cells that have a central small dark nucleus and that appear foamy due to lipid vacuoles

71
Q

why are the cells in zona glomerulosa foamy?

A

they contain lipid vacuoles because they produce steroids => ALDOSTERONE

72
Q

which zone makes up 80% of the cortex of the adrenal gland?

A

zona fasciculata

73
Q

what type of cell structure is found in the zona fasciculata

A

two cell wide vertical cords [columns in pairs] that also have a central nucleus and lipid filled cytoplasm -> foamy

74
Q

cells found in the zona fasciculata secrete ___

A

cortisol

75
Q

in the zona fasciculata you can see _____ between any of these columns

A

sinusoidal capillaries

76
Q

what differentiates the zona glomerulosa to the zona fasciculata?

A

columns with sinusoidal capillaries in between

77
Q

what type of cell structure is found in the zona reticularis

A

cells are no longer foamy but appear eosinophilic, they are present in rows perpendicular to the columns of fasciculata

78
Q

what do the cells present in the zona reticularis secrete?

A

they secrete androgens mainly DHEA and androstenedione which are precursors that can ultimately be converted to testosterone

79
Q

the different zones of the adrenal cortex are separated by clear boundaries. true or false

A

false, there are no clear boundaries, they are determined by the varying cell types

80
Q

you always see _____ in medulla

A

medullary vessels

81
Q

the medulla is made up of _____

A

chromaffin cells

82
Q

what are chromaffin cells

A

modified postganglionic sympathetic neurons that secrete catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine

83
Q

the medulla is a _____ tissue

A

nervous

84
Q

in addition to chromaffin cells, you can also see _____ cells in the medulla

A

ganglion cells

85
Q

what are ganglion cells

A

rare postganglionic neurons that may secrete norepinephrine only

86
Q

what are the white channels that we can observe on a pancreas H&E stain

A

interlobular ducts or pancreatic ducts

87
Q

the pancreas contains islets of lanterns that contain 5 types of endocrine cels which are?

A
  • beta cells
  • alpha cells
  • delta cells
  • gamma (PP) cells)
  • epsilon cells
88
Q

which part of the pancreas has an endocrine functions

A

islets of Langerhans

89
Q

___ and ___ are the 2 endocrine organs that have multiple cell types secreting multiple different hormones

A

islets and pituitary gland

90
Q

which cell type is the most abundant in the islets and what do they secrete?

A

beta cells and secrete insulin

91
Q

alpha cells in the pancreas secrete ____

A

glucagon

92
Q

the different cell types present in the islet cannot be distinguished by H&E. true or false?

A

true

93
Q

which stain is used to distinguish beta and alpha cells in islets

A

Gomori’s stain

94
Q

what is Gomori’s stain

A

it is a specific stain made up of hematoxylin and phloxin

95
Q

how do the beta and alpha cells stain with Gomori’s stain

A

beta cells stain blue

alpha cells stain pink

96
Q

which special stains are used for the pancreas

A

Gomori’s stain and Aldehyde fuchsin

97
Q

how does the pancreas stain with Aldehyde fuchsin

A

beta cells stain dark purple and exocrine pancreas stains a reddish-orange

98
Q

why is the surface epithelium layer of the ovary important?

A

these cells are not endocrine but contribute to the majority of ovarian cancers

99
Q

structures making up the ovarian cortex

A

it contains follicles and corpora lutea at different developmental stages

100
Q

structure of primordial follicle

A

each primordial follicle contains one oocyte surrounded by single layer of flattened epithelial granulosa cells

101
Q

structure of primary follcile

A

oocyte + single layer of cuboidal epithelial cells

102
Q

structure of antral follicle

A 
outer most layer to inner most layer:
- theca cells
- granulosa cells
=> these two departed by membrane
- oocyte
- zona pellucida
- cumulus cells

Metabolic Endocrinology (10 decks)

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