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Biology 2 > Lab Test 1 > Flashcards

Lab Test 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Describe the function of the pharynx

A

respiratory / digestive system
Routes air from mouth and nose to larynx
Delivers food and liquid to oesophagus

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2
Q

Describe the function of the larynx

A

respiratory system
protects lower respiratory tract from aspiring food into trachea

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3
Q

Describe the function of the esophagus

A

digestive system
transport food from the mouth through the throat all the way to the stomach

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4
Q

Describe the function of the epiglottis

A

respiratory system
covers the larynx when swallowing food to avoid food into respiratory system

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5
Q

Describe the function of the trachea

A

respiratory system
allows passage of air in/out of lungs

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6
Q

Describe the function of the pancreas

A

digestive system
produces enzymes to digest food (all macromolecules)

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7
Q

Describe the function of the liver

A

filters the blood from the stomach and intestines
makes chemicals (ie: bile)

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8
Q

Describe the function of the stomach

A

digestive system
holds food
mixes proteins with acid enzymes to break them down

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9
Q

Describe the function of the gall bladder

A

stores and concentrates bile from the liver

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10
Q

Describe the function of the small intestine

A

digestive system
further digests food coming from stomach
absorb nutrients

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11
Q

Describe the function of the left bronchus

A

respiratory system
carries air to left lung

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12
Q

Describe the function of the left kidney

A

urinary system
removes waste from blood
maintain body chemical’s balance

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13
Q

Describe the function of the right ureter

A

urinary system
transports urine from renal pelvis to bladder

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14
Q

Describe the function of the urinary bladder

A

urinary system
temporarily stores urine before excretion

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15
Q

Describe the function of the large intestine

A

digestive system
absorbs water, electrolytes
produces and absorbs vitamins
form and propel feces toward rectum

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16
Q

Define homeostasis of the endocrine system

A

blood glucose homeostasis:
-> Pancreatic islets release 2 hormones; glucagon and insulin
-> rise in blood sugar = insulin = break down + absorption of sugar = homeostasis
-> drop in blood sugar = glucagon = break down + release of glucogen in blood = homeostasis
-> negative feedback mechanism

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17
Q

What are endocrine cells in the pancreas that produce glucagon and insulin called?

A

pancreatic islets

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18
Q

Define homeostasis

A

maintain certain variables within a certain range by negative feedback mechanisms

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19
Q

Know the components in a negative feedback mechanism (stimulus, receptor, control center,
effector) and what their role is.

A
  1. stimulus
    a variable is changed
  2. sensor
    the receptors (sensor) detect changes from a stimulus
  3. input
    info is emitted by the sensor and shared to the control center (= afferent pathway = input)
  4. Output
    The control center takes the info and shares it to the effector (= efferent pathway = output)
  5. homeostasis
    The message from the effector reverses the stimulus back to homeostasis
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20
Q

What is the relationship between glucose and ATP? What is this pathway called?

A

glucose is metabolized to generate ATP through the process of cellular respiration

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21
Q

What is insulin, glucagon and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)? What do each of them regulate?

A

ADH regulates blood pressure
1. the nervous system detects low water concentration in urine.
2. a gland secretes ADH
3. ADH travels in the blood to the kidneys
4. ADH helps water get absorbed into blood = less excess water free to be excreted = less urine = increase water concentration

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22
Q

What is low water concentration in urine

A

darker urine
less water in urine
the ratio of sodium to water is bigger
higher sodium concentration

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23
Q

What organs and organ systems are involved in blood glucose homeostasis?

A

digestive system
endocrine system
pancreas
liver
muscle
adipose tissue

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24
Q

Aside from making urine, what are the main regulatory functions of the urinary system? How do
the constituents found in urine reflect what your body is doing to maintain homeostasis?

A
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25
Q

What does the specific gravity of urine measure?

A

specific gravity of a liquid:
= ratio of the mass of the liquid to the mass of an equal volume of distilled water
(at the same temperature)

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26
Q

What can you infer from a relatively high or low
the specific gravity of a patient’s urine?

A

more concentrated urine
= weighs more than distilled water
= higher specific gravity

dehydrated patient
= more concentrated urine (less water)
= higher specific gravity
= darker colour

hydrated patient
= lower specific gravity

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27
Q

how do you read the specific gravity of an urine sample in a graduated cylinder?

A

The urinometer is calibrated for 15 degrees temp

read the meniscus after th mercury weight is put in an urine sample.

each 3 degrees above 15 degrees, add 0.001 to the final reading.

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28
Q

What is every urinometer reading always compared to? What is this fluid and its
specific gravity?

A

always compared to distilled water
specific gravity of 1.000

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29
Q

How does the respiratory system regulate blood pH?

A

too much CO2 in blood = more H+ = drop in pH
-> the brain tells the lungs to breath faster= remove excess CO2 from blood = homeostasis

too little CO2 in blood = high pH = lower breathing to absorb more CO2

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30
Q

What is diabetes mellitus?

A

defect in insulin signaling
= body is incapable to remove glucose in blood

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31
Q

What types of output from the body help diagnose diabetes mellitus?

A

diabetes mellitus can be detected in blood plasma and urine

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32
Q

diabetes Mellitus type 1 vs type 2

A

type 1
not capable of producing enough insulin
ketones body accumulate in the blood

type 2
decreased response to insulin

33
Q

What is the Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT)? What does it determine in a patient?

A

A test that checks how well your body can handle glucose after you eat.
It determines if your body has:
- a delayed insulin excretion
- a delayed absorption of glucose in liver

-> mostly used to diagnose type 2 diabetes.

34
Q

What is the general procedure of the OGTT for a patient?

A
  • fasting for 8-14h before test
  • 0h sample of blood is drawn
  • patient drinks glucose solution
  • 2h sample of blood is drawn
  • centrifuge blood samples to obtain blood plasma
  • observe glucose’s concentration of both blood plasma
35
Q

For the OGTT, what is the concentration of glucose (mM) for a patient with normal tolerance? With diabetes?

A

normal tolerance = less than 7.8 mM
diabetes = more than 11.1

in between 7.8-11.1 = prediabetes

36
Q

Distinguish the difference between precision and accuracy in your results?

A

High precision, low accuracy:
Results close to each other but far from true value

High accuracy, low precision:
Results close to true value but vary widely.

High precision and high accuracy:
Results are both consistent and correct.

37
Q

What is glycosuria? What urine constituents are abnormal in a patient with untreated diabetes type 1?

A

glycosuria touches patients with diabetes mellitus (type 1 and 2)

both types can have:
glycosuria (glucose in urine)

type 1 can also have:
ketoacidosis (excess ketone bodies in blood which acidify the blood)

38
Q

What are the two reactions in the Hexokinase Reagent Method?

A

rxn 1:
glucose + ATP -> glucose-6-phosphate + ADP
(glucose here is phosphorylated by hexokinase)

rxn 2:
G6P + NAD+ -> 6-phosphogluconate + NADH + H+
(G6P here is oxidized by G-6-PDH)

39
Q

In the hexokinase reagent method, which product is used to indirectly measure glucose concentration in a sample?

A

NADH
if the absorbance of the solution at 340nm increases, there is glucose in the blood.

40
Q

What is the Benedict’s reagent method? How does a positive or negative result look and what do these results infer?

A

if there are reducing sugars in the urine, they will react with the reagent used and cause a change in colour

sugar concentration readings:

red (+++) = high sugar
orange (++) = moderate sugar
green (+) = low sugar
blue (-) = zero sugar

41
Q

Hexokinase reagent method and Benedict’s reagent method are used to measure what? how do they differ from each other in terms of qualitative/quantitative/specificity?

A

the presence of glucose in blood

2 indirect methods

hexokinase = quantitative and high specificity

benedict = qualitative and low specificity

42
Q

Why was galactose used in this lab (3)?

A

galactose is a negative control used to test the specificity

hexokinase reagent method is high specificity;
the reagent reacts with glucose but not with galactose= it is specific for glucose

Benedict’s reaction method is low specificity;
it does not recognize the difference between glucose isomers = it is not specific for glucose

43
Q

what is the result expected in a negative control test?

A

no result

44
Q

Know the effect of adding salts on osmolarity.

A

increases osmolarity (salt dissociates into ions in soln = increases solute concentratin)

45
Q

Define diffusion

A

spontaneous process
occurs when a concentration gradient exists in a soln
results in a net movement from high to low concentration

46
Q

Define osmosis

A

diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane
net movement of water from low solute concentration to high solute concentration

or

net movement of water from high free water concentration to low free water concentration

47
Q

Define concentration gradient

A

a difference in concentration
occurs on each side of the plasma membrane

48
Q

Define dynamic equilibrium

A
49
Q

Know the difference between simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion.

A

simple diffusion
small + hydrophobic molecules (CO2, O2, lipids)
cross phospholipid bilayer easily

facilitated diffusion
hydrophilic molecules (ions, sugars, amino acids)
need transport proteins to diffuse down their concentration gradient

50
Q

what does it mean to diffuse down your concentration gradient

A

a molecule crosses phospholipid bilayer from high concentration region to low concentration region

51
Q

Know how does time affect diffusion rate.

A

over time, the diffusion rate decreases

52
Q

How does temperature affect diffusion rate?

A

the higher the temperature, the higher the rate of diffusion

53
Q

How does concentration gradient affect diffusion rate?

A

the higher the concentration gradient, the higher the rate of diffusion

54
Q

How does the size of the solute affect the diffusion rate?

A

the smaller the size, the higher the rate of diffusion

55
Q

Understand osmolarity when comparing 2 solutions (iso-, hypo-, or hyper-osmotic) separated by
a membrane and how this relates to osmotic pressure.

A

osmolarity is the total concentration of solute

effective osmolarity is concentration of solute that affect water movement (ie solute that do not cross the membrane; polar)

osmotic pressure is proportional to the effective osmolarity

56
Q

Know what types of solutes are non-penetrating (cannot pass through the membrane by simple diffusion)

A

Non-Penetrating Solutes:
- Ions (e.g., Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻)
- Glucose
- Large polar molecules (e.g., amino acids, proteins)

57
Q

Know what types of solutes are penetrating (can pass through the membrane by simple diffusion)

A

Penetrating Solutes:
- Small non-polar molecules (e.g., O₂, CO₂)
- Alcohols (e.g., ethanol)
- Urea

58
Q

What is an isotonic solution?

A

no net gain/loss in water

animals:
normal

plants:
flaccid
normal-looking squared cell with the movement of water in and out

59
Q

What is a hypotonic solution

A

net gain of water in cells

animals:
lysed (explosé) cells

plants:
turgid (normal)
normal squared with movement of water only inside the cell

60
Q

What is a hypertonic solution

A

net loss of water in cells

animals:
shriveled cells

plants:
plasmolyzed cells
squished/shriveled squared cell

61
Q

What is hemolysis

A

red blood cells are in a hypotonic solution
= less free water in the red blood cells
= Water rushes inside the RBCs
= RBCs are burst/lysed

62
Q

what is the tonicity of distilled water

A

water is hypotonic (lysed cells)

63
Q

when hemolysis occurs is the sample of blood turbid?

A

no
turbid = cloudy blood = intact cells

hemolysis = lysed RBCs = clear blood

64
Q

Know how size and polarity of penetrating solutes can affect the speed at which they alter
tonicity and consequently cell shape.

A

polar solute and big solute
hard to cross through the plasma membrane
= longer hemolysis time = cell takes longer before bursting

65
Q

What did the osmometer demonstrate in the lab?

A
66
Q

Why can alcohol penetrate the cell membrane and cause hemolysis?

A

alcohols are lipid-soluble
they are small chains of carbons and mostly nonpolar (only polarity is in their hydroxyl groups)

67
Q

Which type of alcohol
took the shortest time to lyse?
Between glycerol, ethylene glycol and ethanol

A

ethanol (1 -OH )
= fastest hemolysis time when penetrating RBCs

ethylene glycol (2 -OH)

glycerol (3 -OH)
= slowest hemolysis time

more OH groups = more polar molecule = harder to cross the phospolipids bilayer

68
Q

Know the structure and function of enzymes. How are they affected by changes in pH and temperature?

A

an enzyme’s activity is reduced when the pH range is not respected
low/high pH = denaturation of protein

69
Q

Know the function of catalase enzyme and where it is found.

A

found in all organisms that are exposed to oxygen

catalase removes hydrogen peroxide by breaking it down into harmless products

70
Q

What reaction does catalase catalyze? What is the substrate? The products?

A

a rxn catalyzed by catalase looks like this:

2 H2O2 -> 2 H2O + O2
(with catalase as the catalyst in the soln)

products : 2 water + 1 oxygen

71
Q

Know the purpose of doing control runs (e.g. no substrate or boiled enzyme runs)

A

gives more information

no substrate (use water instead of H2O2):
-> no activity = good enzyme specificity, the active site of catalase is specific to hydrogen peroxide

boiled enzyme:
-> no activity = rxn is not spontaneous, it needs an enzyme to form products
-> activity = small amount of spontaneous activity

72
Q

What is meant by the initial reaction rate (V0)? Why did most of the initial reaction rates decline
over time? How did you determine the reaction rate? At the beginning of the 2-minute reaction
or near the end?

A
73
Q

Understand the relationship between reaction rate and substrate concentration. Why does it
plateau at a certain substrate concentration? Be able to graph it and interpret the graph.

A

increase substrate concentration = saturate all the active sites of all the enzyme = no more enzyme activity = plateau

74
Q

Know how to determine Vmax and Km from an enzyme saturation curve.

A

Max = maximum velocity reached
Km = substrate concentration at 1/2 Vmax

75
Q

What does Vmax and Km’s relationship mean?

A

Km is an inverse measure of the enzyme’s affinity for its substrate

high Km
= low affinity
= needs a lot of substrate to reach Vmax, and to saturate

low Km
= high affinity
= enzyme saturates easily, after just a little of substrate

76
Q

Describe the non-competitive inhibitor and how it looks on a graph of the rate of the reaction vs concentration of substrate

A

= it binds to an allosteric site
= changes the enzyme’s shape and puts the enzyme in its inactive form
= The active site is deformed and can’t bind to the substrate
= completely horizontal line in graph (no enzyme activity)

77
Q

Describe the competitive inhibitor and how it looks on a graph of the rate of the reaction vs concentration of substrate

A

it binds to the active site of an enzyme
adding more substrate ensures that some substrates can go around and “outcompete” the inhibitor, reaching the active site first.

78
Q

How can a change in Vmax indicate if the enzyme is non-competitive or competitive?

A

non-competitive
changes the shape of the enzyme
= active site is altered
= less and less enzyme work
= lower Vmax

competitive
= The active site is intact
= The same concentration is needed to saturate the enzyme
= Vmax stays the same

79
Q

How can a change in Km indicate if the enzyme is non-competitive or competitive?

A

non-competitive
the enzyme’s affinity to a substrate is unchanged
Km stays the same

competitive
= You need more concentration to outcompete the inhibitor
= Km is larger

Biology 2 (6 decks)

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