Lab Final–Assignment Questions Flashcards
Skull: locate the following parts on the Canis latrans skull. Try to remember them and to locate them by heart on the other specimens you’ll encounter during the labs (at least the bigger bones and the foramens):
1) Cranium (braincase + rostral region)
2) Mandible (Lower jaw)
3) Rostrum (upper jaw + bones surrounding the nasal passages and divide these passages from oral cavity)
4) Nasal (bone and passage)
5) Frontals (sit above nasal bones, beside the big cavity)
6) Orbit
7) Parietals (behind the eyes, flanking sagittal crest)
8) Sagittal crest (sticks up on top of skull)
9) Occipital (bone and condyle)
10) Foramen magnum (on underside of skull, hole at base of skull)
11) Auditory bulla (big bulge bone on underside of skull towards base)
12) Premaxilla (underside of skull, bone close to incisors before the little holes)
13) Maxillary (underneath the frontals, sitting beside nasal bones)
14) Infraorbital foramen (little holes near incisors on upper jaw)
15) Zygomatic arches (bones that outline the big holes, one on each side)
16) Jugal (attached to zygomatic arch, lower part of hole towards nose)
17) Squamosal (attached to zygomatic arches on base of skull at upper/back branch)
18) Mandibular fossa
19) Lacrimal (bone + foramen)
Qualitatively compare the orbits of Pan troglodytes, Felis catus, Didelphis virginianus, Rattus rattus and Odocoileus virginianus:
- Based on those comparisons, can you tell which ones are mostly prey? Which ones are predators? Why?
The predators are the Felis cats (domestic cat) and the didelphid Virginians (opossum). The prey are Odocoileus Virginians (white-tailed deer), Ratticus ratticus (rat), and Pan troglodytes (chimpanzee).
Predators tend to have forward facing eyesight and large eyes compared to the skull size. Prey tend to have more sideways facing eyes and sometimes smaller eyes compared to the skull size. Chimpanzees are an exception to this.
Qualitatively compare the placement of the foramen magnum of Gorilla gorilla, Alces alces, Rattus rattus, Castor canadensis. What does it tell you about the posture of each species?
The foramen magnum is the large opening in the skull through which the spinal cord connects to the brain. Its position relative to the skull can provide insights into the posture and locomotion of a species.
Gorilla gorilla: the foramen magnum is positioned more centrally under the skull compared to quadrupeds, but not as forward as in humans. This reflects their semi-upright posture (from knuckle-walking) and adaptation to both terrestrial and arboreal locomotion.
Alces alces (Moose): the foramen magnum is located toward the back of the skull, which is typical of quadrupeds and indicates a horizontal spine and head that projects forward (quadrupedal locomotion).
Rattus rattus (Black rat): the foramen magnum is positioned centrally but slightly toward the back of the skull, which reflects the hunched over posture of rats that is favourable for omnivorous foraging and climbing behaviours.
Castor canadensis (beaver): the foramen magnum is positioned centrally but slightly posterior (higher up in the back), similar to rats. Because beavers are semi-aquatic quadrupeds with a horizontal body posture, the central placement supports their ability to hold their head upright while swimming or manipulating objects with their forelimbs.
Teeth: When you are looking at a specimen, ask yourself what kind of cheek teeth it has. What does it mean about its diet? Hint: Look at both shape and height of the teeth.
Cheek teeth:
There are two types of cheek teeth: tribosphenic and quadritubercular.
Tribosphenic teeth: occur in primitive placental and marsupial mammals
Quadritubercular tooth: addition of the hypocone (hypoconid) to have 4 cusps
Some specialized tribosphenic cheek teeth include: zalambdodont, dilambdodont, euthemorphic (quadrate).
As for specialized quadritubercular teeth:
Herbivores tend to be selenodont or lophodont, which means their teeth are “u” or “w” shaped and adapted for grinding up tough plant material.
Omnivores tend be bunodont, which are square teeth (think human molars).
Carnivores are often secodont; these cheek teeth are higher on the buccal side than the lingual side. Carnivores also have what is called “the carnassial pair”, which is when the fourth upper premolar and the first lower molar align for efficient tearing, cutting, and slicing of meat/flesh.
Also note that cheek teeth can be brachyodont or hypsodont…
Brachyodont: low-crowned teeth adapted for omnivory
Hypsodont: high-crowned teeth adapted for herbivory
There are also some special cases, for example:
Insectivores sometimes have commissures, which are modified tribosphenic teeth with 3 cusps elongated into sharp crescent-shaped cristas adapted for cracking exoskeletons.
Some seals (piscivores) have sharp, unicuspid cheek teeth for holding slippery prey.
Edentulous is the lack of teeth (anteaters).
What is unique about Alces alces and Giraffa camelopardalis dental formulae compared to other large herbivores? Why might these features be retained in these species?
Giraffa Camelopardalis dental formula: I0/3 C0/1 P3/3 M3/3
Alces alces (Moose) dental formula: I0/3 C0/1 P3/3 M3/3
They both lack incisors and canines on the top palette which is utilized for pulling and stripping. This adaptation favours eating leaves off of bushes or trees.
Goats, cows, sheep, deer also have these adaptations.
What is unique about Gulo gulo dentition compared to other carnivores? Why might have they developed this adaptation?
Gulo gulo (wolverine) dentition:
- 4 regular incisors and 2 long, larger ones on the top for holding prey
- upper molars rotated inwards to crush bones and frozen tissue
- large canines for stabbing and catching prey
What kind of tooth is Phacochoerus aethiopicus tusks? What might they be used for?
Phacochoerus aethiopicus (warthog) tusks are adapted canine teeth.
They are used in sexually-selected duelling and possibly also offers protection from predators.
Can you find which teeth make up the carnassial pair in Canis latrans?
Used for tearing and shearing meat
What is unique about Castor canadensis front incisors?
Castor canadensis (beaver) front incisors grow continuously. They are thicker and longer for chewing trees. They also have a large overbite to create a gap for fitting trees in mouth and being able to carry wood.
How can you describe the diet of Talpa europaea based on its dentition?
Talpa europaea (European mole) dentition and diet inferences:
- large molars for grinding and crushing insect exoskeletons
- characteristic rodent incisors possibly for opening shells/exoskeletons or maybe work like a pair of tweezers since hands are large and less tactile (this, in theory, would help avoid consuming as much dirt)
- canines larger to stab/hold insects
Identify types of cheek teeth that Panthera leo, Canis latrans and Ursus arctos have. What is different in Ursus arctos teeth? What does it tell about its diet?
Panthera Leo (lion) and Canis latrans (coyote) are secodonts, meaning they have teeth with sharp, cutting edges, ideal for shearing or slicing through flesh and the specialized carnassial pair (the last upper premolar and first lower molar) designed for shearing meat.
Panthera leo cheek teeth are reduced in size and number, as they are primarily carnivorous and do not require extensive grinding surfaces, while Canis latrans have more generalized molars and premolars compared to lions, as they are omnivorous and need teeth that can handle a variety of foods, including meat, plant matter, and bones.
Ursus arctos are bunodont, meaning they have large, flat molars and premolars with broad grinding surfaces adapted for crushing and grinding plant material, such as roots, berries, and nuts, as well as processing meat.
In conclusion, Panthera Leo is almost entirely carnivorous, Canis latrans are omnivorous but with a preference for meat, and Ursus arctos is omnivorous with a diverse diet.
What is the dental formulae for the following species: Ailuropoda melanoleuca, Oryctolagus cuniculus, Myrmecophaga tridactyla, Giraffa camelopardalis, Pongo pygmaeus.
Examine the Neovison vison, Ondatra zibethicus, Pekania pennanti, Vulpes lagopus, Vulpes vulpes, and Canis lupus.
What types of hair are found on each?
What is the function of each type of hair?
Neovison vison (mink): fur, vibrissae, and awns
Ondatra zibethicus (muskrat): velli (on tail), fur, awns, vibrissae
Pekania pennant (Fisher): Fur, vibrissae, awns
Vulpes lagopus (Arctic fox): Fur, vibrissae, awns
Vulpes vulpes (Red fox): Fur, vibrissae, awns
Canis lupus (wolf): Fur, vibrissae, awns
vibrissae (whiskers): long, stiff hairs primarily serving as tactile receptors
Guard hairs–
Spines: primarily defensive
Bristles: long, firm with angora growth
Awns: firm, expanded distal region (warmth)
Underhairs–
Wool: Angora growth, soft, insulate
Fur: definitive growth, fine, dense covering
Velli: definitive growth, downy/fuzzy, very fine (peach fuzz)
Define heterodont.
In biology, “heterodont” describes animals with teeth of different types and shapes, such as incisors, canines, premolars, and molars, as opposed to homodont animals with teeth of a single type.
Eumelanin, pheomelanin, and agouti. What do these mean?
Examine individual hairs from an animal with agouti hair and note the sequence
of colour bands.
Eumelanin and pheomelanin are two types of melanin pigments that determine hair and skin color, with eumelanin producing brown to black colors and pheomelanin producing yellow to red colors. The agouti signaling protein (ASIP) influences which pigment is produced, acting as an antagonist of the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R).
Agouti colouration from root to tip:
white-black-grey-black
List 2 mammals for each of the following pelage patterns: countershading, disruptive colouration, cryptic colouration, warning colouration, & flagging.
Counter-shading: red fox, mule deer, dolphin
Reverse counter-shading: honey badger
Disruptive colouration: cheetah, zebra
Warning colouration: skunk, wolverine, badger
Cryptic colouration: Arctic fox, Hare
Flagging colouration: white-tail deer, black-tailed prairie dog
Are there established populations of albino individuals in the wild? Are there populations of melanistic individuals? Why? Do you know species in which melanistic individuals are common?
Yes, there are established populations of albino and melanistic individuals in the wild, though they are rare. Albino individuals, which lack melanin, often face survival challenges due to poor eyesight and increased visibility to predators, making stable populations uncommon. Melanistic individuals, which have an excess of melanin, are more common in some species, such as leopards (Panthera pardus) and jaguars (Panthera onca), where the dark coloration provides better camouflage in dense forests. Melanism can offer a survival advantage in certain environments, leading to higher frequencies in specific populations. For example, the “black panther” is a well-known melanistic variant of these big cats.
One example of an established albino population in the wild is the albino gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) in Olney, Illinois, USA. This population originated from a single albino squirrel introduced to the area in the early 20th century and has since become a stable and protected community. The albino squirrels are a local landmark and are even celebrated with festivals and legal protections to ensure their survival. While albino individuals typically face survival challenges, this population thrives due to human intervention and lack of natural predators in the area.
Why do many desert mammals retain pelage throughout the year?
- shedding and growing a pelt is resource intensive and desserts often lack ample resources
- Do not have drastic temperature changes with the seasons so there is not a need for a “winter coat” or “summer coat”
- Hair is important for UV protection, thermoregulation, and water retention for many mammals in the dessert and likely evolved to keep their coat
Where are vibrissae located on mammals? Can you think of more than one
location?
Vibrissae are mostly located all over the face of mammals.
However,
- some species have them on the underside of the leg just under their paws
- dolphins have whiskers around their blow holes
What is unique about Dasypus novemcinctus?
Dasypus novemcinctus (nine-banded armadillo) have epidermal scales instead of types of hair like most other mammals.
Examine and describe the integument of Castor canadensis tail.
A beaver tail has epidermal scales and a leathery texture. The tail is almost hairless, except for some awns.
Compare the horns (both core and sheaths) of Antilocapra americana with
Eudorcas thomsonii. How do they differ?
Antilocapra americana (pronghorn) and Eudorcas thomsonii (Thompson’s Gazelle)
Gazelles do not shed their horns. Pronghorns do not shed their horns either, however, they shed the sheath of their horns annually. The core always remains, that is why they are not considered antlers.
Locate the burr, beam, brow tine, bez tine and crown on Odocoileus virginianus,
Odocoileus hermionus, Cervus canadensis, Alces alces (photo) and Rangifer tarandus. How do the general size and arrangement of these racks vary?
Moose and caribou both possess “palms” rather than tines.
White-tail deer, mule deer, and elk have tines. Rule of thumb for determining the brow tine and bed tine is to view the rack from an aerial view. The brow tine is usually smaller and deviates from the beam first, then the bez tine is next to deviate.
Looking at several species that have horns and antlers, explain what functions
horns and antlers might be? State the costs versus benefits of having these structures.
Horns and antlers serve several key functions, including defense against predators, intraspecific competition (e.g., fighting for mates or territory), and display to attract mates. For example, antlers in deer are primarily used during the breeding season, while horns in species like bighorn sheep are used year-round for dominance battles.
The benefits of these structures include increased reproductive success and survival, but they come with costs such as high energy expenditure for growth (especially for antlers, which are shed and regrown annually) and increased risk of injury during fights. Additionally, large antlers or horns can make movement through dense vegetation more difficult, potentially increasing vulnerability to predators.