Lab Flashcards
all flat maps contain distortions of properties such as ____,_____,______
scale-distance and area
shape
direction
Map Scale:
Which one is more large scale?
1:10,000 or 1:250,000
Smaller the scale, the _______ the proportion of land that is visible
1:10,000
larger the denominator, the smaller the map scale
larger/lower level of detail
Azimuth vs. Bearing
based on clockwise angles measured from the north end of any meridian
ex: 135 degrees
use of quadrant letter to enclose angles measures from nearest end of meridian
ex: S 45 degrees E
Bearing: N 45 degrees E
Azimuth:?
45
Azimuth: 135 degrees
Bearing:
S 45 degrees E
magnetic declination
how to correct
the different in angle from true north and magnetic south
. to correct you either add or subtract the current date’s magnetic declination angle from an azimuth value
Grid North
differs from true north because meridians converge towards poles while UTM grid units are squares
Define Isolines:
Isobars:
Isotherms:
Isohyets:
topographic contours:
pressure
temp
rainfall
land elevation
Define interpolation
adding isolines to a map on which data consist of a sampling of regularly spaced or randomly scattered points
gradient
is a line along which the value of some measureable variable changes and the rate of change per unit of distance is greater for steep gradients and less for gentle gradients
Vertical Exageration
How to calculate?
the horizontal scale and the vertical scale are not necessarily the same on a profile graph, therby causing what is refered to as
obtained by deviding the horizontal scale by vertical scale
profile
is the term used for 2-dimensional representation of a vertical cross section through a 3 dimensional shape, and is normally depicted as a graph of vertical change versus horizontal distance along a transect
1:_______ and 1:_______ scales are the most common
50,000 and 250,000
Most of Canada is mapped using ______ ______ ______
National Topographic Series(NTS)
Topography maps
to portray the visible characterisitcs of the landscape surface, including the natural features such as landforms, water bodies and streams as well as major components built by humans
UTM
Because the globe is 360° in circumference, a division into sixty vertical zones gives each zone the width of 6° of longitude. By international usage these zones have been numbered 1 to 60. Sixteen of the zones, bearing numbers 7 to 22, cover Canada (see Figure 2)
How to map reference a map with numbers: how to find the location of a church on grids
To arrive at a map reference for the church shown in Figure 1, we would first note the numbering of the lines that form the west and south of the square. For centuries, mathematicians have given the X coordinate before the Y coordinate; map users follow suit by quoting eastings before northings. Therefore the designation of the square containing the church would be 9194.
To give a reference for the church itself, we must imagine the square divided into 100 smaller squares (ten by ten). Then we estimate by eye that the church is six tenths of the way between lines 91 and 92, and four tenths of the way between lines 94 and 95. Using these figures, we can quote the easting as being 916 and the northing as 944. By convention these are combined into a reference of 916944
The Military Grid Reference System is convenient, but unfortunately reference numbers repeat themselves every 100,000 metres (100 km or about 62 miles). Therefore a method has been devised to identify the 100,000-metre squares by letters which are printed in blue on the face of all NTS maps. This is particularly important in the case of medium- and small-scale maps (1:250 000 and smaller), as unlettered references are ambiguous on a single map. The identifying letters (two of them) are always given before the numbers. Figure 3 shows a reference on a 1:250 000 map (where grid lines are usually identified by a single number).
Here the church would be in square NT99 and more precisely at point NT9293. This reference is still not unique, but the same reference does not occur again for about 2,900 km (1,800 miles). For most purposes this is sufficiently unambiguous.
If, for some reason, a reference is required that is unique in the world, one must look in the margin of the map for the Grid Zone Designation. The zone, which is explained elsewhere, is one of the 60 strips of the projection. The zone number is followed by a letter which gives the general area north or south of the equator in bands of 8 degrees. Therefore the unique designation of the church if it were in the Ottawa area would be 18 T NT9293
top of Atmosphere is _____km
.top about 480 km above earths surface
.
3 atmospheric criteria
composition, temp, function
air pressure
air molecules create it through their motion,size,and numbeer exerting force on all surfaces they come in contact with
gravity pushed down on air, compressing, making it denser near earths surface
-increaseing altutide, density and pressure deacrease
chemical composition of atmos: 2
Heterosphere:
- outer atmpsphere from 80-480km alitude
- less than 0.001% of atmospheres mass is here
- region is not uniform, gases are not evenly mixed
- gases sorted by gravity with heavier elements(oxygen,nitrogen) dominant in lower hetero while lightest(hydrogen,helium)are at the margins
Homosphere:
- surface to 80 km altitude
- blend of gases is nearly uniform throughout
- only exception is ozone layer from 19-50km and the variations in water vapour, pollutants
- mostly nitrogen at 78%
Temperature criterion
- Thermosphere
- 80 to 480km
- upper limit is thermopausse
- temperature rises quickly with altitude
- not “hot” in the way you would expect because the density of molecules is so low there that little actual heat is produced
3.mesophere
.50 to 80km
.outer boundary is mesopause is coldest portion of atmos
.low pressure(low density of molecules)
2.stratosphere\
.18 to 50km
.temps increase with altitude
.stratopause outward bound
1.troposphere
.90% of total mass of atmos and the bulk of all water vapour
.warmer to colder with altitude
Temperature vs heat
temp:
.intesnse solar radiation in this portio of the atmosphere excites individual molecules to higher levels of vibration. This kinetic energy, the energy of motion, is the vibrational energy that we measure as Temp
HEAT:
. is created when kinetic energy is transfered between molecules and thus between bodies or substances
Normal Lapse rate is about __ degrees C per ___m
vs environmental laspse rate
- 4 per 1000m
enviro: actual lapse rate for specific places as specific times
“The function” atmospheric criterion: 2
1.ionosphere:
.outer functional layer, extends throughout the thermosphere and into mesopshere
-absorbs cosmic rays, gamma rays, xrays, and shorter wavelengths of ultraviolet rad changing atoms to positvely charged ions and giving it its name
- ozonosphere:
.portion of stratosphere that contains an increased level of ozone
.absorbs shorter wavelengths of UV rad
.UV energy converted to heat
Why are mean air temperatures at saskatoon below freezing for the months of November through march although shortwave radiation is recieved at ground surface during all of these months?
.Low sun angles in the winter season serve to increase absorption, reflection, and scattering of insolation
.Snow covered land surfaces exhibit an albedo effect greater than 80%, meaning that much of the incoming rad is reflected from the surface. the Relatively small portion of incoming rad absorbed at the surface is transformed in latent heat(melting snow and ice) and sensible heat(heating ground surface and air)
. Loongwave radiation is large and negative in the winter season; strong radiative cooling of the surface and the air above it
all-wave radiation is negative and therefore the ground surface and the air in contactwith it exhibit freezing temperatures
Polar Tropopause lat
Midlatitude Tropopause lat
Equitorial Tropopause latitude
8
11-12
17-18
Why does the tropopause move latitude height in response to location: think fairbanks vs. florida keys
Gases in the troposphere above each location responds to the air temperature by expanding or contracting meaning that tje altitude of the tropopause moves up and down
Florida keys: gases respond to warmer air temps and expand, thus increasing the altitude of the tropopause/thickness of the troposphere
Fairbanks: gases in the troposhphere above fairbanks respond to colder air temps by contracting, thus decreasing the alitude of the tropopause/thickness of troposphere
Solar constant rate on atmos is ______
1372 Watts/m squared(2)
lithosphere ranges in thickness from about ___-___ km
it includes the ____ and uppermost portion of the ______
It is thickest under the _______ and thinnest under the ________
60-150 km
crust, mantle
Continents
ocean basins
There are atleast __ seperate segments(______ ______) which are able to move over a soft layer of mantle called the ________
14
lithospheric plates
asthenosphere
the greatest seismec activity is associated with _______ ______ _______ that are undergoing downwarping(_______) into the asthenosphere
convergent plate boundaries
subduction
Crustal deformation(______) from tensional and compressional forces can generate _____ and _____
diastophism
folds and faults
Building of mountains because of tectonic activity is called…
orogeny
continents are shifting up to __ cm
6
continents are adrift because _______ currents in the ________ and upper mantl provide ________ and ________ forces that push and pull portions of the lithosphere
convection
asthenosphere
upwelling and downwelling
Father of plate tectonics
alfred wegener
mid ocean ridges
underwater mmountain systems that form a chain length of 64000 km; 1000km in width
seafloor spreading
as upwelling occurs, the new seafloor then moves outward from the ridge as plates pull apart and new crust is formed
in the areas of ocean basins farthest from the ______ _____ the oldest sections of oceanic lithosphere are slowly plunging beaaneath continental lithosphere along earths deep _____ ______
midocean ridges(youngest crust in world)
ocean trenches
Subduction
when one portion of the lithosphere descends beneath the another and dives downward into the mantle
-subduction zone
.the subduction slab of crust exerts gravitational pull on the rest of the plate-a pull now known to be an important driving force in plate motion
-subducted portion travels down into the athensosphere, where it remelts and eventually is recycled as magma, rising again toward the surface through deep fissures and cracks in crustal rock
basaltic ocean crust density:
continental crust density:
What happens when they collide?
- 0g/cm(-3)
- 7 g/cm(-3)
when they slowly collide, the denser ocean floor will grind beneath the lighter continental crust, thus forming subduction zones
-deep ocean trenche coincide with this
3 types of boundaries in interacting movements of plat tectonics
- Convergent boundary
. occur in areas of crustal collision and subduction
-areas where continental and oceanic lithosphere meet, crust is compressed and lost in destructional process as it move downward into the mantle - Divergent Boundary
.occur in areas of seafloor spreading, where upwelling material from the mantle forms new seafloor and lithospheric plates spread apart in a constructional process - Transform Boundary
. occur where plates slide past one another, usually at right angles to a seafloor spreading centre
-these are fractures stretching accross the mid ocean ridge system worldwide
. as plates move past eachother horizontally they form a type of fault or fracture, in earths crust which is a TRANSFORMATION FAULT
-along the fracture zones that intersect ridges, a transform fault occurs only along the fault section that lies between two segments of the fragmented mid-ocean ridge
-along the transform fault, the crust moves in the same direction(away from the mid ocean ridge) as the spreading plates
-the movement along the transform faults is that of HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT-no new crust is formed or old crust subducted
.transformation in direction of fault movement-these faults can be distinguished from other horizontal faults because the movement along one side of the fault line is opposite to movement along the other side
-creates new material as seafloor spreads
Horizontal Displacement
the movement along the transform faults is that of HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT-no new crust is formed or old crust subducted
volcanic hot spots
50-100 active volcanic sites of upwelling material that exists independently of plate boundaries
- some produce enough heat for geothermal energy
- occur beneath oceanic and continental crust
- some are very deep within the lower mantle and do not move as the crust moves
give example of hot spot island chain
Hawaii
surface relief(3 orders)
.vertical elevation differences upon a surface
1st order:
.is the coarsest level of landforms, consisting of the continents and oceans
-ocean basins and continental landmasses
2nd order:
. the intermediate level of landforms
-both on continents and ocean basins
-mountain passes, plains, lowlands
ex: european alps, Canadian Rockies, canadian sheild
in ocean basins- continental rises and slopes, oceanic trenches
3rd order:
. most detailed order
-inidivudual mountains, cliffs, valleys, hills
topography
the general term for the undulations and other variations in the shape of earths surfcae, including its relief
-the lay of the land
LiDAR used for…
DEMs….
studying earths topography
-sattelite radar
digital elevation models
-to display elevation data in digital form
ocean basin
are portions of the crust that are entirely below sea level
_______ is the measurment of land elevation relative to sea level
_______ is the measurement of underwater elevations
hypsometry
bathymetry
Earths Surface relief features and associated tectonic, seismic, and vollcanic processes: Western USA, Mexico
Margin Type:Transform
Type of crust:continental and oceanic
Major continental or ocean basin relef features:mountains of gulf of california
major regional relief:
San Andreas Fault
current tectonic, seismic, or valcanic activity:
folding and faulting, earthquakes
Earths Surface relief features and associated tectonic, seismic, and vollcanic processes:Iceland
Margin Type:Divergent
Type of crust:oceanic
Major continental or ocean basin relef features:mid-oceanic ridge
major regional relief:mid-atlantic ridge
current tectonic, seismic, or valcanic activity:
hot spot valcanism, earthquakes
Note: hot spot volcanism asssociated with divergent plate boundary(ie. Mid-atlantic ridge). Explosive volcanism:lava flows plus pyroclastic sediments(volcanic ash)
Earths Surface relief features and associated tectonic, seismic, and vollcanic processes:East Africa
Margin Type: Divergent
Type of crust:Continental
Major continental or ocean basin relef features:
Continental Rift Valley
major regional relief: East African Rift Valleys
current tectonic, seismic, or valcanic activity:
Volcanism, earthquakes
Earths Surface relief features and associated tectonic, seismic, and vollcanic processes:Hawaii
Margin Type: N.A
Type of crust: Oceanic
Major continental or ocean basin relef features:
Volcanic Island arc
major regional relief:
Hawaii Islands
current tectonic, seismic, or valcanic activity:
hot spot volcanism, earthquakes
Note: Hot spot Volcanism,Effusive volcanism produces enormous shield volcanoes; has created volcanic island arc
Earths Surface relief features and associated tectonic, seismic, and vollcanic processes: India, Nepal, Tibet, China
Margin Type: Convergent
Type of crust: Continental
Major continental or ocean basin relef features:
orogenic mountain belt
major regional relief:Himalayan Mountains
current tectonic, seismic, or valcanic activity:
Earthquakes
Earths Surface relief features and associated tectonic, seismic, and vollcanic processes:Japan
Margin Type: Convergent
Type of crust:oceanic
Major continental or ocean basin relef features:
volcanic island chain
major regional relief:
Japanese Islands
current tectonic, seismic, or valcanic activity:
subduction, volcanism, earthquakes
Note: Oceanic-oceanic convergent plate boundary. Subduction of oceanic lithosphere generates magma that is erupted explosively to create composite volcanoes composed of lava flows and puroclstic sediments. Valcanims has created a volcanic island arc
Earths Surface relief features and associated tectonic, seismic, and vollcanic processes:Russia
Margin Type:convergent
Type of crust:continental
Major continental or ocean basin relef features:
orogenic mountain belt
major regional relief: Ural Mountains
current tectonic, seismic, or valcanic activity:
None
create fluvial landscapes through the ongoing _____, ______, and _______ of materials in a downstream direction
erosion, transport, deposition
The energy of a stream to accomplish this geomorphic workd depends on a 3 main factors: ______,_____ ____, and ______ of flow(discharge)
explain each
Gradient:
.degree of inclination/gradient/channel slope
.the drop in elevation per unit distance, usually measured in meters per km
.affectts its energy nd ability to move material; in particular, it affects the velocity of the flow
Base Level:
.the level below which a stream cannot erode its valley
. ULTIMATE base level=sea level, average level between tides
.Local Base level(or temporary one)=may determine the lower limit of local or regional stream erosion
Stream Discharge:
.a mass of water situated above base level in a stream has potential energy, as water flows downslope or downstream, under the influence of gravity, this energy becomes kinetic.
. the rate of this conversion from potential to kinetic energy determines the ability of a stream to do geomorphic work
.Dishcarge= volume of flow per unit of time
- Q=wdv (expressed in m^3 x s^-1)
-cubic meters per second
w= channel width
d=channel depth
v=stream velocity
a river generally has a ________ slope nearer the headwaters and a more ______ slope downstream
steeper
gradual
Exotic Stream
different then most streams because high potential evapotranspiration rates in arid regions can cause discharge to decreaase with distance downstream,often made worse by use in irrigation
-happens when a stream originated in humid area but travels through arid area
Perennial Streams
flow all year, fed by snowmelt, rainfall, groundwater, or some combination of those sources
Ephermeral Streams
flow only after precipitation events and are not connected to groundwater systems
-years may pass between flow events in these usually dry stream channels
hydrograph
a graph of stream dicharge over time for a specific location
as stream discharge _______, so does the elevation(gage height or stage) or the water surface
increases
rating curve
a streams rating curve related to stream discharge to gage height
Hydraulic Action
is a type of erosive work performed by flowing water alone, a squeeze-and- release action that loosens and lifts rocks
-maximized at upstream tributaries where little sediment exists and is trubulent flow
Describe:
Headward erosion
Channel Incision
process where streams lengthen their channels upstream
process where streams deepen their channel their channel
stream aggradation
if the sediment load exceeds a streams capacity, sediment accumulates in the bed and the stream channel builds up through deposition
point bar
inner portion of each meandering curve is sibject to the fastest water velocity, it undergoes the greatest erosive action or scouring, the inner portion of the meander experiences lower velocity and thus a ZONE OF FILL that results in a …
alluvium
the general term for the unconsolidated clay silt sand and gravel deposited by running water
fluvial deposition is when streams deposit alluvium
the active margin of the pacific ocean along north and south america is an example of a _____ coastline
the active margin of the atlanctic ocean and gulf coastal plains along N.A is an example of a _____ coastline
erosional
-rugged, high relief, tectonically active
depositional
-relief is gentle, abudnat sediment from river systems
Eolian Deposition is formed by th e _____
wind
An extensive area of windblown sand is an ____
ERG
Stoss side=
leeward side=
windward-gently sloped
slipface-more steeply sloped
the angle of the _____ is the steepest angle at which loose material is stable- the angle of ______
slipface
repose
dunes classified by three general shapes
- crescentic
- linear
- massive star dunes
the projection type used for topographic maps is _____
utm
Saying used for Eastings and Northings
Determine your easting first, and then find your
northing. (In the house, then up the stairs.)
Always measure over to the east and then up to
the north. In other words, find the easting, then
the northing.
morphometry
the process of measuring the external shape and dimensions of landforms, living organisms, or other objects
sinuous/convoluted
many curves or turns
an ______ is formed by a meander neck being cut through, and sediment deposited to seal off the eneds of the cut
oxbow
abandoned river channel
Describe each dune form:
Barchan
Transverse
Parabolic
Longitudinal
Barachnoid ridge
Longitudinal
Star dune
Dome
Star Dune
Reversing
Refer to page taken out
With excess sediment, a stream might become a maze of interconnected channels that form a _____ _____
braided stream
- occurs when reduced discharge lowers a streams transporting ability
- often occur in glacial environmentals
______ stream is a sinuous snakelike form weaving back and forth
meandering
-path of least effort
undercut bank
greatest erosive action on outside of meandering curve which forms steep undercut bank
alluvial fans
prominent cone-shaped deposits of fluvial sediments
- occurt commonly at the mouth of a canyon where ephermeral stream channel exits the mountains into a flatter valley
- happens when water loses velocity coming out of constricted area, dropping layers and layers of sediment
roche moutonee
an asymmetrical hill of exposed bedrock
-has a characteristic gently sloping upstream side(stoss side) that is polished smooth by glacial action and an abrupt and steep downstream side(lee side) where the glacier plucked rock pieces
shape of typical stream cut valley before glaciation = ___. ___ shaped when warmer climate beforces ice to retreat.
Arete:
cirques:
col:
horn:
bergshrund:
Tarn:
Pasternoster:
v
u
SEE TEXT PAPERS
earths circumverence
40,075 km
latitude of arctic circle
66
Barrier spits
Beaches
Tombolo
Bay barrier
Lagoon
Sea arch
Notched cliff
Terrace
_______ current
Littoral
C to kelvin
+273
