L8: Developmental Theories II: Erikson, Piaget, Kohlberg and Gilligan

Question 1

What is the purpose of studying development?

Answer 1

• Provides objective framework to assess when development is delayed in consequential ways, provides information to guide appropriate expectations and activities, helps understand what a given individual may be working on and why they’re doing what they’re doing and deepens understanding of a given individual’s experience at a given time.

Question 2

What are the stages of Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development? Provide characteristics of each stage.

Answer 2

• 1.) Trust vs mistrust (birth to age 1) Are others trustworthy to provide for one’s basic needs, is world safe for exploration/play/relaxation or unpredictable and threatening? Infant not fed, comforted or kept warm learns that others are not to be trusted. If others are seen as untrustworthy, then individual won’t follow advice, seek help, let their guard down or have emotionally intimate connections. - 2.) Autonomy vs shame/doubt (age 1-3) Associated with terrible twos. Capacity to say no signals developing sense of self, sense of free will, awareness of ability to control the environment. Independence and self-assertion increase. Infant gains sense of being competent to solve problems and accomplish tasks. Ideally, parents structure environment to foster master and avoid excessive control. - 3.) Initiative vs guilt (age 3-5) Learning to declare autonomy and individuality in ways that begin to conform to societal expectations. Enjoy joining peers and adults in carrying out activities and making things. Begin to see self as member of community to can conbtribute to activities and goals. Emulate a significant person in child’s life or be part of particular group. Sex-role identity develops. - 4.) Industry vs inferiority (age 5-11) Challenge to establish sense of competence. Increase in comparison of self to others. Development of self-esteem, promoted by parental acception and affection, setting and enforcing limits that are clear and respecting individuality and independence. - 5.) Identity vs role confusion (age 11-21) Starts during adolescent. Question of Who Am I? Period of trying a variety of roles and identities. Requires both exploration and commitment to achieve successfully. Need to develop a stable sense of self across varied roles and in varied settings. Difficult period with high baseline rates of emotional distress. - 6.) Intimacy vs isolation (age 21-40) Need to find and commit to spouse. More broadly, ability to develop deep, lasting and emotionally intimate relationships. - 7.) Generativity vs stagnation (age 40-60) Choice to raise the next generation. Capacity to contribute meaningfully in world of work. - 8.) Integrity vs despair (age 60-death) Reviewing one’s life with need to make sense of one’s own story and find meaning in it.

Question 3

What are the stages of Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development? Briefly explain.

Answer 3

• Sensorimotor (birth to age 2): infants learn to coordinate their sensory input with their motor output. - Preoperational (age 2-6): ability to mentally represent things in world that are not currently present (imaginative play) and object permanence is mastered (things are still there when you can’t see them). Ability to use symbols to represent reality (playing with dolls). Egocentricism (what happens is because of them). Theory of mind (distinguishing own viewpoint from that of others). Confused about causation, confusion of appearance and reality. - Concrete operational (age 6-12): ability to use logic to mentally manipulate objects and perform actions (addition/subtraction). Objects and events under consideration need to have been experienced directly (unable to perform pure abstract thinking). Can consider more than one attribute of an object at a time. Development of conservation (water from large to small container contains same amt of water). Decline of egocentricism. Parents should take intent into account and punish proportionately; play rule-based games. - Formal operational (age 12-19): development of capacity for abstract thought and formal-deductive reasoning. Solve problems systematically and thoroughly. Interest in abstract ideas and process of thinking itself. Reason is based on abstract principles. Interest in unversal ethical principles (applied rigidly regardless of mitigating factors). This is encouraged in Western-style schools. 30-40% of well-educated Americans reach this by their early 20s. Not always used.

Question 4

What are the stages of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning? Briefly explain.

Answer 4

• 1.) Level I: Preconventional a.) Stage 1: Heteronomous morality (around preschool): right (vs wrong) is determined by adherence to external rules. Reason for doing right is avoidance of punishment. b.) Stage 2: Instrumental morality (~ age 7-8): right is determined by acting in one’s own interest and allowing others to do the same. Interest in fairness. Reason for doing right is to serve’s one’s own needs, includes awareness that others have separate needs. No longer dependent on external authority to determine right vs wrong. - 2.) Level II: Conventional a.) Stage 3: Good-child morality (~ 10-11): right is determined by living up to expectations, having good motives and being pro-social (rather than individualistic). Reason to do right is to be good person and to care for others. b.) Stage 4: Law-and-order mentality (~ 11/adolescence to early 20s): right is determined by following law and helping society as a whole. Reason to do right is to promote rules of social group as whole. - 3.) Level III: Postconventional (or Principled) a.) Stage 5: Social-contract reasoning (early adulthood): right is determined by upholding universal values and right with awareness that people hold a variety of values and beliefs. Reason to do right is to abide by social contract that promotes everyone’s welfare. b.) Stage 6: Universal principles (ideal than reality): right is determined by following ethical principles that were self-chosen (rather than societal). Principles override law in case of conflict. Reason to do right is a belief in validity of university moral principles.

Question 5

What is Carol Gilligan’s contribution to the development of morals in women?

Answer 5

• Kohlberg research that led to his theory of moral reasoning was done with only male participants. - Gilligan argued that women tend to reason more out of a morality of care, that girls are socialized to be nurturant, compassionate and non-judgmental and are reluctant to judge right and wrong in absolute terms. - Subsequent research testing Gilligan’s argument has not upheld any strong gender differences in terms of moral reasoning.