L4 Emotion is Cognitive

Question 1

Outline how emotions can be rational

Answer 1

• Emotions are based on actual events and substantive beliefs
• Emotions help individuals function effectively in the environment
• Emotions can systematically guide or disrupt cognitive processes

Question 2

What did Dolcos et al. (2011) propose in terms of emotion-cognition interactions?

Answer 2

There are neural correlates of emotion and cognition that suggest the two interact e.g. memory, emotion regulation, personality, decision making

Question 3

What is the Mere Exposure Effect (Zajonc, 1980)

Answer 3

We don’t need cognition to feel
Happens unconsciously, independently of cognition, whether something is good or bad
This isn’t just to do with ‘liking’ - Ohman & Soares (1994) found that snake and spider phobics showed increased physiological reactions to subliminally presented photos of snakes/spiders
Also see increased unconscious negative appraisals of food stimuli in patients with anorexia nervosa

Question 4

What is Appraisal Theory (Lazarus, 1982)?

Answer 4

Thought is a necessary condition of emotion
Appraisals cause, or at least precede, emotional experience
Emotions are subjective, and to prompt emotion an event must be evaluated in relation to the person’s well being
Appraisals don’t necessarily imply awareness

Question 5

What are Dual Process Theories (LeDoux, 1980)?

Answer 5

Both previous approaches are correct, we feel fast and we feel slow
Have a fast automatic unconscious system and a slower controlled conscious system (implicit and explicit attitudes)
Interaction between fast processing (amygdala) and a slower more elaborate representation (associated with neocortex)

Question 6

What do Appraisal theories believe?

Answer 6

Ellsworth (2013)
Emotions are multi-dimensional and adaptive
They arise from the organism’s perception of environmental changes
Appraisals are influenced by temperaments, culture, individual differences, experiences and goals

Question 7

According to appraisal theories what are several features that influence emotional experience?

Answer 7

Bodily reactions
Action tendencies
Social interactions
Facial expressions
Cultural norms

Question 8

What are the 2 types of emotions?

Answer 8

Integral emotion: feelings caused by or related to the decision at hand or cognitive task
Incidental emotion: feelings unrelated to the cognitive process

Question 9

What can be observed in emotions of the same valence (good or bad)?

Answer 9

They may not have the same effects

Effects of anger and sadness differ in assessment of control and contributions of responsibility

Question 10

What did Lerner et al. (2003) find in relation to different effects of anger and fear?

Answer 10

Examined the effects on perceptions of future risks related to terrorist attacks after 9/11
Angry PPs estimated less risk and scared PPs estimated more risk

Question 11

What is Network Theory (Bower, 1981)?

Answer 11

Emotions are nodes in a semantic network
Mood influences memory e.g. mood state dependent memory and cognitive processing e.g. negative emotions associated to pessimistic cognition

Demonstrating an indirect effect:
mood -> mood congruent thoughts -> judgements

But mood-incongruent memories can still be retrieved e.g. recalling a happy event when sad

Question 12

How can feelings act as information?

Answer 12

Clore (1983)
Feelings provide rapid information about our environment, can act as heuristics when making judgements “how do I feel about this?”

Demonstrates direct effect:
mood -> judgements

But mood can have little impact on general thoughts and beliefs e.g. political orientation

Question 13

What is the availability heuristic?

Answer 13

You form estimates of likelihood based on how easily you can retrieve instances from memory. Emotional events are more memorable but not necessarily more frequent
Mood increases the availability of mood-congruent information

Question 14

What is the effect of negative mood on decision making?

Answer 14

Anxiety is associated with risk aversion

Sadness tends to increase risk tolerance or risk seeking

Question 15

What are the effects of positive mood on decision making?

Answer 15

Linked to higher risk aversion,, especially when the odds of losing are high
Positive outcomes should seem more likely (affective priming)
Positive mood should signal safety (feelings as information)

Question 16

What is the Hedonic Contingency Model (Wegner & Petty, 1994)?

Answer 16

People are motivated to achieve and maintain pleasant moods

When we feel good we have more to lose and spend more time thinking about the consequences of our actions

Question 17

What is the Somatic Markers Hypothesis?

Answer 17

Damasio (2005)
PPs learn to avoid risky card decks that lead to bigger losses
PPs produce skin conductance responses when an outcome is a loss
These responses occur when the risky option is being considered

Question 18

How do negative emotions influence how we think?

Answer 18

Narrow attentional focus

Promote deliberate, systematic and analytical thinking

Question 19

How do positive emotions influence how we think?

Answer 19

Broaden the attentional focus

Promote use of heuristic and stereotypical thinking

Question 20

What is the effect of having a feelings as information processing style on reasoning?

Answer 20

For systematic negative moods, reasoning is focused on deep features e.g. strength of an argument
For heuristic positive moods, reasoning is focused on superficial features e.g. the source of information

Question 21

What is the effect of having a hedonic contingency processing style on reasoning?

Answer 21

For systematic positive moods, will process uplifting messages more systematically than depressing messages
For heuristic negative moods, angry PPs will be more influenced by a stereotype than sad PPs when judging student misbehaviour

Question 22

What is the Emotion-Imbued Choice (EIC) model (Lerner et al., 2015)?

Answer 22

A general model of affective influences on decision making
It doesn’t account for reflexive behaviour e.g. visceral influences like jumping back
Emotion is considered in 2 ways:
- The emotions felt at the time
- The expected emotions
The characteristics of the decision maker e.g. personality and characteristics of options influences the evaluation of the decision

Question 23

What are positive emotions associated with?

Answer 23

A host of positive outcomes such as health, well being and success
They broaden attention and encourage cognitive flexibility
And broadened cognition helps to build resources: physical, psychological and social

Question 24

What are expected emotions?

Answer 24

Simulations of experiences and their associated emotions before and after they happen
Decisions and behaviour are based on anticipated as well as experienced emotions

Question 25

What is impact bias?

Answer 25

Consistent overestimation of the intensity and duration of a future emotion

Question 26

Are forecasting errors useful?

Answer 26

Overestimation can be function, can be motivating and anticipated regret is a powerful force in guiding behaviour
We probably learn anyway, more likely to get more accurate at predicting future feelings