L3: Functional organisation of nervous systems

Question 1

Equilibrium potential:

1. the potential a membrane would establish, solely based on the ___ for one particular ___.
2. This is based on the assumption that the membrane is ___ for this ion type.
3. The equilibrium potential for each ion can be calculated with the ___ equation.

Answer 1

1. • conc gradient
     - ion type
2. highly permeable
3. Nernst equation

Question 2

Membrane potential:

1. a sum of the ___ for each ion inside and outside of the cell, as well as the ___ for each ion.
2. If the permeability for one ion is high, the ion will reach its ___ and hence the equilibrium potential for this ion ___ the membrane potential. In most cells, this is the case for potassium ions because there are open potassium ___.
3. membrane potential will always shift towards the ___ of the ions with the highest ___ (i.e. open ion channels).
4. The membrane potential can be calculated with the ___ equation.

Answer 2

1. • equilibrium potentials
     - membrane permeability
2. • equilibrium
     - dominates
     - channels
3. • equilibrium potentials
     - permeability
4. goldman

Question 3

Resting potential:

1. In neurons, the basal membrane potential (without any ___) is called resting potential.
2. This is to ___ in the membrane potential in an unstimulated (i.e. resting) compared to a stimulated (graded/action potential) state.
3. Please note that the membrane potential is called a resting potential only in those cells which can generate___ (neurons or muscles).

Answer 3

1. graded potentials or action potentials
2. highlight the difference
3. action potentials

Question 4

Organisation of nervous systems in animal groups:

1. Cnidarians have a “simple” __ which can control complex behaviour
2. Most animal groups display ___ (i.e. have a major integration centre = brain)

Answer 4

1. • nerve net

2. cephalisation

Question 5

Organisation of nervous systems

1. Central nervous system: (2)
2. Ganglia or Nuclei are “___” (cell bodies) [part of CNS]
3. Afferent neurons send info from ___
4. Efferent neurons send info from ___

Answer 5

1. brain + spinal chord
2. integration centres
3. periphery -> CNS [afferent arrive]
4. CNS -> periphery [efferent exit]

Question 6

Organisation of nervous systems: nerves (vertebrate)

1. A nerve is a group of ___ from many ___
2. It is surrounded by layers of connective tissue:
   - E
   - P
   - E

Answer 6

1. • axons
     - neurons
2. • Endoneurium
     - Perineurium
     - Epineurium

Question 7

The mammalian brain (human)

1. The left hemisphere controls ___ part of body
2. the right hemisphere controls the ___ part
3. Hemispheres are ___ not identical
4. Left: control of ___
5. Right hemisphere: perception of ___ relationships
6. The ___ is bundle of ___ which connects 2 hemisphere

Answer 7

1. right
2. left
3. functionally
4. speech
5. spatial
6. • corpus callosum
     - axons

Question 8

Removal of the corpus callosum, split brain syndrome:

1. When 2 hemispheres are disconnected they work ___ of each other

Answer 8

1. independently

Question 9

Cerebrum (cross section)

1. Grey matter contains (3)
2. Where most ___ are located
3. White matter mainly consists of ___ which connect different parts of the ___ to each other

Answer 9

1. cell bodies, dendrites, axon terminals
2. synapses
3. • axons
     - grey matter

Question 10

Cerebrum (cross section)

1. The ___ cortex:
2. • receives ___ info (perception),
     - ___ info
     - controls ___ movement
3. Cortex contains multiple (usually 6) layers of ___

Answer 10

1. cerebral
2. • sensory
     - integrates
     - voluntary
3. neurons

Question 11

Functional regions of the cerebral cortex (lobes):
1. The cerebrum can be divided into several lobes: each named after overlying ___ of skull
2. “Freud Tore his Pants Off”
f___
t___
p___
o___

Answer 11

1. bones
2. • frontal lobe
     - temporal lobe
     - parietal lobe
     - occipital lobe
     [diagram on notes necessary to see]

Question 12

Functional regions of the cerebral cortex - Language areas of the cortex:

1. multiple regions of ___ cerebral cortex participate in processes of ___ a word that is heard + ___ a written word
2. In both cases ___ controls muscles involved in speech

Answer 12

1. -left
   - repeating
   - speaking
2. primary motor cortex

Question 13

Where is personality located:

1. The ___ lobe of the ___ is mainly responsible for personality + decision making

Answer 13

1. • frontal

- cerebrum

Question 14

Functional regions of the cerebral cortex:

1. [somatosensory cortex: receives all ___ input. Feelings in skin, pain, visual, auditory stimuli]
2. [primary motor cortex: generate neural impulses that control ___]

Answer 14

1. sensory

2. movement

Question 15

Control of voluntary movement:

1. Involves ___
2. However other brain regions involved in coordination of movement (2)
3. Disturbances in neuronal communication within ___ system are associated with impaired control of ___ (Parkinson’s disease)

Answer 15

1. primary motor cortex
2. thalamus + basal nuclei
3. • basal nuclei
     - impaired movement

Question 16

Cerebellum:

1. Cerebellum receives ___ input from:
   - ___ [away from central/core regions] of body
   - organ of equilibrium (___).
2. Also receives ___ input from ___
3. It ___ input info + coordinates ___
4. Also involved in (2)

Answer 16

1. • sensory
     - periphery
     - inner ear
2. • motoric
     - cerebrum
3. • integrates
     - movement
4. learning + memory

Question 17

Thalamus - a relay centre:

1. a relay station which integrates ___ info
2. Thalamus receives info from all senses except ___
3. Filters unnecessary info + only relays “important” info to the ___

Answer 17

1. sensory + motoric
2. smell
3. cortex

Question 18

Control of emotions, decision & motivation - limbic system:

1. ___ is involved in emotional response especially (2)
2. ___ is involved in learning + memory. Converts short term to long term memory
3. ___ is responsible for sense of smell. It is connected to (2)(Therefore odour provoke strong emotions + memories in humans)

Answer 18

1. • Amygdala
     - aggression + fear
2. hippocampus
3. • olfactory bulb
     - amygdala + hippocampus

Question 19

Hormonal control centres of the brain (endocrine organs):

1. The ___ controls internal organs + endocrine (= hormonal) system in order to maintain ___ (electrolyte + fluid balance, hunger, thirst)
2. ___ gland secretes hormones (e.g. antidiuretic hormone)
3. The ___ gland is involved in establishing circadian rhythms + secretes hormone ___

Answer 19

1. • hypothalamus
     - homeostasis
2. pituitary
3. • pineal
     - melatonin

Question 20

Brain stem:
1. Connects brain to ___
2. mainly controls ___ functions
3. ___ controls eye movement
4. Eye move in ___ [rapid movement of eye between fixation points]
5. During a saccade you are ___
Brain stem
6. The ___ is a “bridge” between the cerebrum + the cerebellum.
7. Also controls ___
8. ___ controls involuntary functions (breathing, cardiovascular control)

Answer 20

1. spinal cord
2. involuntary
3. midbrain
4. saccades
5. blind
6. pons
7. breathing
8. medulla oblongata

Question 21

Brain regions & their function (exam table): CEREBRUM
1. Perception (sensory information)
Integration of sensory information and control of voluntary movement.
2. Coordination of movement
3. “Emotional brain”
4. Emotions (aggression and fear)
5. Learning and Memory (conversion of short-term to long-term memory)
6. Sense of smell; not connected to Thalamus but to Amygdala/Hippocampus

Answer 21

1. Cerebral cortex
2. Basal nuclei
3. Limbic system
4. Amygdala
5. Hippocampus
6. Olfactory bulb

Question 22

Brain regions & their function (exam table): DIENCEPHALON

1. Integration and relay centre for sensory and motoric information
2. Homeostasis (salt and water balance, appetite)
3. Secretion of hormones
4. Secretion of melatonin

Answer 22

1. Thalamus
2. Hypothalamus
3. Pituitary gland
4. Pineal Gland

Question 23

Brain regions & their function (exam table):

1. Coordination of movement based on sensory information (organ of equilibrium)

Answer 23

1. Cerebellum

Question 24

Brain regions & their function (exam table): BRAIN STEM

1. Control of eye movement
2. Connects cerebrum and cerebellum, coordination of breathing
3. Control of involuntary functions (breathing, cardiovascular control)

Answer 24

1. Midbrain
2. Pons
3. Medulla oblongata

Question 25

Comparative anatomy of brains:

1. Vertebrate brains share similar ___ but vary in ___
2. Brains evolved from centres controlling ___ (lizard brain is basically a “brain stem”) to brains allowing more ___ behaviour: logic + reasoning

Answer 25

1. • structure
     - size
2. • essential body functions
     - complex behaviour

Question 26

The cerebrospinal fluid system

1. ___ [hollow part in an organ] are filled with cerebrospinal fluid which continues throughout ___
2. Fluid protects brain from ___ (traumatic brain injury) also reduces its ___
3. Cerebrospinal fluid is secreted by an epithelium: the ___ (500 ml per day)

Answer 26

1. • ventricles
     - spinal chord
2. • injury
     - weight
3. choroid plexus

Question 27

The “glymphatic” system:

1. ___ project into cerebral cortex.
2. ___ cells (astrocytes) wrap around those arteries + build up a “tunnel” for ___
3. Cerebrospinal fluid ___ tunnels generating a convective flow towards the venous system where it is ___
4. This is a ___ mechanism - fluid flow washes waste products into venous system

Answer 27

1. arteries
2. • glial cells
     - cerebral spinal fluid
3. • leaves
     - collected
4. • cleaning

Question 28

When cleaning goes wrong: a link to Alzheimer’s?

1. Neurodegenerative disease such as Alzheimer’s are associated with appearance of ___
2. Could this be waste which was not cleaned up due to ___

Answer 28

1. plaques

2. defective glymphatic system

Question 29

Sleeping position & glymphatic system:

1. • Fluid flow of glymphatic system is fuelled by arterial pulse
     - Therefore sleeping position affects efficiency of cleaning.
     - Sleep on ___ side your heart slightly elevated thus pumping more efficiently towards the brain

Answer 29

1. right