L3 - Ethical Implications Of Research Studies & Theory, Including Reference To Social Sensitivity

Question 1

Ethical Implications of research studies and theory

Answer 1

• In psychology ethical issues may arise when there is a conflict between psychology’s need to gain valid and valuable research findings whilst, preserving the rights and dignity of the participants.
• Ethical guidelines exist to protect those involved in research.
  However, although a psychologist may follow all ethical guidelines, they have limited
  control over:
  1) How the findings of their study are presented in the media.
  2) The impact of their findings on public policy and
  3) How their findings may impact the perception of particular groups in society

Question 2

Therefore the ethical implications of psychological research are the:

Answer 2

1) Effects of research on participants - psych harm, confidentiality
2) Effects of publication on wider public e.g. how gender biased research affects the perception of women
3) Potential use of the findings, eg allocation of resources - copyright
4) Potential use of the findings, eg political - equality act, social policy - consequences – changes in legislation
5) Potential bias against people of certain cultures/socioeconomic backgrounds - stereotypes - stay away from women who PMS
6) Potential influence on moral attitudes towards individual/social and ethnic groups e.g. Darwin - men can be promiscuous but women can’t
7) Economic implications, eg for further psychological research, eg funding etc, e.g. SZ - FT reduces hospital beds needed, family can work

Question 3

Example of studies that have ethical implications

Answer 3

• milgram’s research
• Bowlby’s research

Question 4

Milgram’s research

Answer 4

• Milgram’s obedience research and attitudes to people of different nationalities
• Milgram attempted to prove the ‘Germans are different’ hypothesis by stating the American people when put in a situation where they are required to obey an authority figure (in this case a scientist) to give lethal electric shocks to another individual would not occur – in other words, no one would give lethal electric shocks to another individual.
• The fact that Milgram was making assumptions about the Germans as being obedient due to their authoritarian personalities has ethical implications since other nationalities might frown upon the Germans and see them as ‘bad’.

Question 5

Bowlby’s research

Answer 5

• Bowlby’s research and the effects on child-rearing/working mothers
• Bowlby assumed that the PCG must by the mother or mother figure and must be with the infant in the critical period otherwise the child could suffer maternal deprivation which would lead to them possibly becoming affectionless psychopaths
  – this finding put undue pressure on mothers making them feel guilty going to work

Question 6

Other examples of research/studies that may have ethical implications

Answer 6

• diagnosis of depression, schizophrenia, etc
• biological research into addiction/aggression/offending – issue of who is to blame, eg if offending/aggression/addiction is inherited
• implications of relationship counselling based on research into relationships
• how research into gender might affect parenting/educational practices

Question 7

Evaluation of ethical implications into research

Answer 7

strengths
- sensitive research
- careful of carrying out research
- cost-benefit analysis
weaknesses
- not possible to see all effects
- seen as too strict

Question 8

Sensitive research

Answer 8

• The main practical implication of the consideration of ethical implications is that it has led to research that is conducted in a much more sensitive manner, - has resulted in the protection of the health and dignity of participants, as well as the reputation of
  psychology.
  E.g. experiments like Milgram’s and Zimbardo’s would not be carried out unless they were carefully controlled and not having any long lasting damaging effects on the participants.

Question 9

Careful when carrying out research

Answer 9

• most research does have ethical implications and the fact that this point is recognised is a strength in that researchers can then be more careful when they carry out research and be aware of the ethical implications.
• In effect, the code of ethics governed by the British Psychological Society together with university ethics boards means that ethical implications of research have to be considered if research is to be conducted.
• Stringent guidelines are in place to protect all people who may be involved in the process.
• The guidelines have become more careful as time has passed so the chances of research causing problems has reduced.

Question 10

Cost-benefit analysis

Answer 10

• By understanding the ethical implications of research, a cost-benefit analysis can be
  used to decide whether it is worth carrying out that piece of research.
• If the costs outweigh the benefits, then that research should not be carried out.
• However, if the benefits outweigh the costs and the research has no negative impact upon society, then it should be carried out

Question 11

Not possible to see all the effects

Answer 11

• Sometimes it is not possible to see what the effects of research might be on the researcher, the participants and society. (Could instead do pilot study, look at similar previous research, informed consent)
• This makes it hard to judge.
• It is also not an objective decisions, so there is potential for bias from within the decision makers.
• This means that research (particularly socially sensitive research which has potential consequences for the treatment of certain groups in society) causes problems from time to time.
  E.g. carrying out research on the effects of daycare on children seems to show an increase in children’s aggression levels
  – this means that we need to be careful about this finding because it is insinuating that children should not go to daycare
  – this would then effect working mothers and whether they send their children to day care or not.

Question 12

Seen as too strict

Answer 12

• ethical guidelines set for research permission are seen by some to be too strict.
• There are areas of research which could elicit helpful findings that could benefit a lot of people.
• However, the research cannot be conducted due to the research process potentially causing issues for the participants or researcher.
• Reaching a balance is therefore problematic.

Question 13

Socially sensitive research

Answer 13

• studies in which there are potential social consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research or the class of individuals represented by the research leading to prejudice and discrimination (Sieber and Stanley,1988).
• socially sensitive research is where the topic area and/or group studied can have implications for society/certain groups in society - potentially leading to a change in, or justification for, the way these groups are treated/perceived.
• Sieber and Stanley (1988) warn that the way that the research questions are phrased and investigated may influence the way that the results are interpreted.

Question 14

Examples of socially sensitive research

Answer 14

• heterosexual vs homosexual relationships
• Bowlby’s research

Question 15

Heterosexual vs homosexual relationships

Answer 15

• research into relationships tends to focus on heterosexual relationships & any research into homosexual relationships was compared and judged on heterosexual norms.
• Some of the research into relationships is definitely more guilty of this such as the evolutionary explanations of partner preferences which focuses on inter-sexual and intra sexual selection.
• Therefore the evolutionary theory may not apply to homosexual couples where choosing a partner may not be based on producing as many children as possible

Question 16

Bowlby’s research

Answer 16

• Bowlby’s work on attachment & women encouraged to stay at home and look after their children otherwise the children would suffer maternal deprivation based on his law of accumulated separation and Law of continuity arguing that a zero doze of separation was a safe dose.
• This theory would make mothers feel guilty if they went to work.
• due to Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation, government policies were put in place after WWII whereby mothers were told to stay at home for the first five years of the child’s life which meant that fathers would need to be the breadwinner

Question 17

When research is socially sensitive…..

Answer 17

• imperative to deal with issues such as informed consent, psychological harm and confidentiality.
  E.g. when studying domestic abuse and violence, participants may be worried that there ex-partners may find out about the study and hunt them down.
• when participants are talking about their experiences, this may cause them stress and psychological harm as they are re-living their experiences.
• even if pps do give their informed consent, they may not always realise the consequences of taking part in the study and how the results are going to be used
• The way findings are used are important for researchers to consider as this may impact on what data they gather.
• This is especially important if the findings from the research are seen as giving scientific credibility to existing prejudices.
  E.g. if a piece of research is suggesting that a certain race is less intelligent than another race, then this could cause even more prejudice against that race.

Question 18

Evaluation of socially sensitive research

Answer 18

strengths
- some socially sensitive research is beneficial
- reflexive approach
- cost-benefit analysis
- mechanism to safeguard individuals
weaknesses
- can lead to discrimination
- negative impact - less to investigate
- abdication of ‘social responsibilities’

Question 19

Some socially sensitive research is beneficial

Answer 19

• However, it is important to recognise that not all socially sensitive research is controversial and some is desirable and beneficial to society.
  E.g. research examining eye-witness testimony, especially the use of child-witnesses (e.g. Flin et al.)
  has found that young children can be reliable witnesses if they are questioned in a timely and appropriate manner.
• In this area, socially sensitive research has resulted in a good working relationship between psychologists and the legal profession to help
  improve the accuracy and validity of children eye-witnesses.

Question 20

Reflexive approach

Answer 20

• Sieber and Stanley argue that taking a more reflexive approach could help to deal with the issues of socially sensitive research (rather than avoid it completely)
  – in other words psychologists should reflect on how their own personal beliefs affect the research process

Question 21

Cost-benefit analysis

Answer 21

• understanding the fact that research is socially sensitive and could have potential consequences for a particular group of people, a cost-benefit analysis can be used to decide whether it is worth carrying out that piece of research.
• If the costs outweigh the benefits, then that research should not be carried out.
• if the benefits outweigh the costs and the research has no negative impact upon society, then it should be carried out.

Question 22

Mechanism to safeguard individuals

Answer 22

• Finally, the considerations outlined by Sieber and Stanley provide a mechanism to safeguard individuals who are indirectly affected by psychological research.
• Sieber and Stanley recommend that researchers should consider this when interpreting and applying their findings, to ensure that psychological research does no indirect harm to other members of society. - Furthermore, because many marginalised groups (such as those with disabilities, the elderly, and the economically disadvantaged) are largely excluded from research, they may in some way be harmed by its conclusions and application

Question 23

Can lead to discrimination

Answer 23

• Socially sensitive research can lead to issues of discrimination and therefore some psychologists would argue against conducting this form of research.
  E.g. research examining racial differences in IQ has been used to justify new (and often unwarranted) forms of social control.
  E.g. between 1907 and 1963, over 64,000 individuals were forcibly sterilized under eugenic legislation in the United States, and in 1972, the United States Senate Committee revealed that at least 2,000
  involuntary sterilizations had been performed on poor black women without their consent or knowledge.
• This could be ‘justified’ by (flawed) research findings (e.g. Robert Yerkes) which argued that black Americans had lower IQ scores in comparison to white Americans.

Question 24

Negative impact - less to investigate

Answer 24

• The issues with conducting socially sensitive research (like those highlighted above), are why some psychologists simply suggest that we should avoid conducting such research, and steer clear of sensitive topics, including ethnicity, gender and sexuality.
• Some psychologists believe that such research could have a negative impact for the participants.
• However, this would probably leave researchers with nothing but trivial questions to investigate.
• A more acceptable solution might be for psychologists to engage more actively with policy makers after the publication of their findings to help
  reduce the likelihood that data is misused and to ensure that evidence-based research is used in socially sensitive ways.

Question 25

Abdication of ‘social responsibilities’

Answer 25

• some psychologists argue that ignoring socially sensitive areas (e.g. ethnicity or gender related research) amounts to an abdication of their ‘social
  responsibilities’.
• Scarr (1988) argues that ‘science is desperately in need of good studies that highlight race and gender variables…to inform us of what we need to do to
  help underrepresented people to succeed in this society. Unlike the ostrich, we cannot afford to hide our heads for fear of socially uncomfortable discoveries’