L2: Role of Habits & Impaired Cognitive Control

Question 1

Define habit

Answer 1

instrumental responses triggered by stimuli, and that dont depend on the current moitvation for the outcome of the behaviour

Question 2

What is the difference between goal directed action & habit?

Answer 2

only goal directed actions are mediated by knowledge of the R -> O relationship & an evaluation of the anticipated outcome in light of one’s current motivation
habits are mediated by S-R links, so they are “behaviourally autonomous” of the current desirability of the coutcome

Question 3

What is considered the adaptive value of a habit?

Answer 3

they can be executed fast & in an efficient manner so this helps us free cognitive resources, allowing us to attend to other important matters

Question 4

What ist he habit discontinuity hypothesis?

Answer 4

old S-R habits can be disrupted by a change in context, thereby providing a window of opportunity for adapting behaviour in light of one’s current goals
aka habits are contextually dependent

Question 5

Why are the results showing that behavioural repetition makes it more automatic (so less autonomic) questionable?

Answer 5

issues w how we interpret these findings:
- might mix up repetitive behaviour w trying to achieve a goal, so not all repetitive behaviour is related to a lack of control (ex: if someone keeps snacking repetitively despite wanting to stop, we might think its cause they lost autonomy, or control, over their actions. but there could be other reasons: maybe they just really love these snacks)
- when ppl report their habits in diaries, it might not always be accurate cause thye might not realize they’re doing something out of habit

Question 6

How can we study whether an action is goal directed or habitual?

Answer 6

outcome revaluation test

Question 7

When is drug-seeking behaviour called goal-directed?

Answer 7

when its based on an expectation (cognitive criterion) and positive (hyper)evaluation (motivational criterion) of the drug

Question 8

What does the habitual drug seeking account say?

Answer 8

that drug seeking initally starts out as goal-directed but becomes increasingly driven by aberrantly strong habits

Question 9

Defnine goal directed action

Answer 9

instrumental behaviours only performed with the belief that they will achieve a specific goal or avoid an undesirable outcome

Question 10

Define instrumental behaviour

Answer 10

learned as a consequence of a causal relationship between R and O, as opposed to being controlled purely by predictive Pavlovian relationships between S and R

Question 11

What is meant by the belief & desire criterions of goal directed behaviour?

Answer 11

goal directed actions are:
- mediated by knowledge of the causal relationship between action (response) & outcome (belief criterion)
- executed only when the outcome is currently desirable (desire criterion)
ex: buying popcorn is a goal directed action when one currently desires the taste of popcorn and believes that the act of buying it is a necessary step to achieve this

Question 12

How are habits formed according to the “Law of Effect”

Answer 12

when a behaviour is followed by reward (positive reinforcement) or absence of an expected negative event (negative reinforcement). the reward (or relief) reinforces a stimulus-response (S-R) association between environmental stimuli & behaviour but occurence of aversive outcome (or cancellation of an anticipated reward) weakens the S-R relationship
aka if the stimulus is encountered, it can immediately trigger the old behaviour, even when one isnt currently particularly motivated toward the ouctome

Question 13

What are the 3 central ideas of habit theory of addiction?

Answer 13

1. there are individual differences in the tendency to form dominant habits, and with a strong tendency, the person in question is vulnerable to developing an addiction (or other compulsive behavior)
2. drugs are extremely strong reinforcers of S-R habits
3. drugs lead to structural changes in the brain, that lead to a generally stronger tendency to rely on habitual control.

Question 14

What is the “outcome devaluation” paradigm and how can it be used to research targeted/automatic control?

Answer 14

a pardigm used to determine whether a certain behaviour is goal directed or habitual
consists of 3 phases:
1: instrumental learning phase (animal trained to press a lever to obtain food in a skinner box so association between action (lever pressing) and outcome (receiving food) is established)
2: outcome devaluation phase (animal removed from skinnerbox, and allowed to consume the food to point of satiation, this way, the outcome is “devalued”)
3: critical test phase: animal returned to the skinnerbox & has opportunity to press lever again. if behaviour is goal-directed, animal should adjust their behaviour based on the devalued outcome (aka animal was previously motivated by hunger to press the lever for food but are now satiated and food has been devalued, they should reduce their lever pressing). but if behaviour has become habitual, animal may continue to perform the action despite the devalued uotcome since action has become automatic & triggered by environmental cues rather thane expected reward

Question 15

what did outcome revaluation studies show in animals?

Answer 15

when rats were put back in the box after one of the foods had been devalued (by pairing it w a bad tasting medicine), they pressed the lever less (goal directed action)
but after “overtraining”, or a long period of lever pressing prior to the devaluation of the food, the rats kept pressing the lever regardless of whether they liked the outcome (habit)

Question 16

How do outcome revaluation studies work in humans? & results

Answer 16

• one study: partipants had to choose between icons on screen, where each icon was associated w different probability of getting a specific drink (orange juice or chocolate milk). then they were given as much of one drink as they wanted until satiation. afterwards asked to choose between drinks again: led to reduced responding for that outcome
• instructed devaluation: participants explicity informed that certain outcome is devalued cause it no longer earns them points, but kept pressing the keys that led to those outcomes sometimes (showed that action became more automatic & less influence by current value of outcome, this is called “slips of action” or habit intrusions)
• popcorn test showed that habits are closely tied to specific situation
• other tests showed that after extensive repetition,, behavioural autonomy decreases

Question 17

How does substance abuse arise according to dual-process theories & habit account say?

Answer 17

S_R associations that have been reinforced (according to law of effect), can gradually become dominant after many repettitions, shifting the balance from flexible, goal-directed control towards efficient S-R habits (brain forms strong connections between drug use & rewards, shown by habit brain areas becoming more active as addiction progresses)

substance abuse is result of the 2 processes being disrupted
1. reinforced automatic/reflexive/impulsive bottom-up processes (like pavlovian conditioning & formation of instrumental habits) by drug
2. weakened top-down cognitive/reflexive/executive functions, in other words: impaired cognitive control can lead to a fall back on habits (cause of drugs neurotoxic effects on prefrontal cortex in particular)

Question 18

What is the dual-system theory of instrumental behaviour? What are the roles of each of the 2 systems in behaviour?

Answer 18

theres 2 learning processes/systems:
1. goal-directed
2. habitual
these compete & cooperate to control action

Question 19

What is the neural basis of goal-directed actions & habits in humans

Answer 19

use FMRIs
- ventriomedial prefrontal cortex &caudate linked to goal directed actions
- posterior putamen & premotor cortex play role in habits
other findings
- stronger connections between ventromedial prefrontal cortex & caudate -> better goal directed behaviour
- stronger connections between premotor cortex & posterior putamen -> more habitual behaviour
- corticostriatal circuits curical for balance between habits & goal directed

Question 20

What did Tricomi’s research on outcome devaluation in humans show?

Answer 20

group w more training at pressing buttons, developed habitual behaviour, meaning they continued responding to cues even when associated reward was no longer desirable
-> showed that w enough training we can develop habits, so we respond automatically to cues

Question 21

What are the main executive (cognitive conrol) functions?

Answer 21

• error monitoring: ability to detect erroneous responses
• working memory: ability to maintain & manipulate info in memory
• cognitive flexbility/set shifting: ability to shift attention between one task & another
• decision making: basing choices on the advantages/costs/risks associated w behaviour
• inhibitory (impulse) control: ability to inhibit actions & thoughts

Question 22

How do we measure the main executive (cognitive control) functions? How do they reflect cognitive functioning?

Answer 22

• error monitoring: in EEG (event related potention) : error related negativity (ERN) occurs 100ms after an incorrect response has been made
• working memory: ex: self ordered pointing task, digit span
• cognitive flexibility/set shifting: ex wisconsin card sorting test
• decision making: ex Iowa Gambling task & Delay Discounting Task
• inhibitory (impulse) control: ex go/no go task, stop signal task, stroop task

Question 23

What is the role of executive (cognitive control, top down) fucntions in addiction?

Answer 23

gray & white matter volume reductions (related to executive functions) in addiction
- could be consequence of substance abuse or may predate it (so like a premorbid risk factor) (brainscans & family history show different povs)
so this may partially mediate cognitive dysfuntion in substance abuse

Question 24

How do you study cognitvie flexbility? What do results show on addicts?

Answer 24

Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST)
- particpiant told to match the cards, but not how to match but get feedback whether a particular match they made is right/wrong
- card sorting rule changed regularly & unannounced (set shifting)
- pervasive errors indicate lack of flexibility
- performance is impaired in addicts

Question 25

How do you study decision making? What do results show on addicts?

Answer 25

Delay discounting: degree to which a reward decreases in subjective value as a function of the time that one has to wait for it - marshmallow experiment waiting in children is a famous example of this - in adults choice tasks w money rewards are shown (get 10eur now vs 50eur in a month) - in substance abuse: discounting of delayed rewards Iowa Gambling Task: - have to weigh negative & positive consequences & deal w uncertainty (so quite representative of reality) - subjects have to choose cards from 4 decks of cards on screen. each time they choose a card they gain some money & that goal of exercise is to make the most money so have to choose the higher gains but given later In addicts: perform poor here, associated w dysfunction in vmPFC & dlPFC

Question 26

How is decision making findings in addicts relevant for treatment?

Answer 26

addicts: inability to forego immediate gratifiction (and focus instead on long term goals). in treatment: - can attach immediate positive consequences to the desired behaviour - Contingency Management: type of BT where ur rewarded for positive behavioural change

Question 27

How can inhibitory control be measured? What does it show for addicts?

Answer 27

- Go / No Go task: ppl have to respond quickly to frequent go signals, & suppress to infrequent no go signals - Stop-signal task: when cue is occasionally followed by stop signal, participatns have to inhibit the activated response, the later the stop signal shown, the more difficult - Stroop task: slower performance & errors during incongruent trial (word meaning in conflict w color of word) shows PFC dysfunction addits have impaired response inhbition -> inability to inhibit excessive drug tking

Question 28

What is the main neural basis of executive dysfunction in addicts?

Answer 28

dysfunction in prefrontal cortex (dorsolateral & inferior frontal), anterior cingulate cortex, and orbitofrontal cortex but lots of variability in brain regions cause of different tests used, duration of substance use etc

Question 29

What does the substantia nigra do?

Answer 29

- has high levels of dopamine producing neurons - next to ventral tegmental area - part of basal gaanglia - connected to striatum

Question 30

Offer 3 arguments pro & 3 against brain disease model

Answer 30

CON - addiction is a disorder of fronto-striatal circuitries: all substances have in common that they affect dopamine pathways involved in craving & habits. substance also associated w altererd function & gray matter losses in PFC, insula & cingulate cortexs = regions involved in top down cognitive control over behaviour. in line w notion of chronic disease, these changes in brain are long lasting & persist after abstinence - neuroimaging as the ultimate diagnostic tool is not realistic demand (other neuropyschiatric disorders can also not be diagnosed on basis of brain scans), they can just help us identify targets for treatment in brain - true, thats why convergence w findings from experimental animal models is so important - thats not an argument against brain disease model, as these factors ultimately exert their influences on behaviour by impacting neural processes - GENETICS correct, but thats because genetic risk is probabilistic not deterministic (studies show dna accounts for 50% of addiction risk) & polygenic risk factors are shared across different substances - CHRONIC RELAPSING NATURE: total abstincnce for rest of ones life is rare treatment outcome. reliability in spontaneous remission research is low. - STIGMATIZATION: chronic illness sufferer vs moralistic bad person view helps ppl focus on treatment & remove stigma CON - some brain functions do show recovery after absistence - brain lesions/dysfunctions arnt sufficiently specfici to support diagnosis - neuroimaging studies just offer correlational (not causal) evidence - availability, costs, social influcnes, poliicies, socioeconomic factors etc also play important role in addiction - GENETICS a genetic predisposition is not a recipe for compulsion - CHRONIC RELAPSING NATURE: spontaneous remission happens a lot: ppl achieve natural recovery in asbence of formal treatment - STIGMATIZATION: brain disease model could worsen stigma. there are other better models that alleviate stigma.

Question 31

What happens in pavlovian vs instrumental conditioning?

Answer 31

pavlovian/classical: change in behaviour due to experience with a relationship between a (neutral) conditioned stimulus (CS) and a (motivationally relevant) unconditioned stimulus (US) instrumental: change in behaviour caused by a relationship between an instrumental response (R) and a motivationally relevant outcome (O)

Question 32

Is addictive behaviour goal directed or habitual?

Answer 32

pro habitual - drugs often used in ritualistic manner (like a habit, with certain ppl/locations etc) - "slips of action" suggest absent minded drug use (ex: even tho u werent planning on drinking, before u know it youre having a beer) - habit account against habitual - its not compulsive tho! these previous arguments dont explain the urge/craving for drugs - barridge: habits x play big role in addiction

Question 33

Which theory can account for the high relapse rates in ppl returning from a drug rehab center where they were treated for heroin use? A.Incentive-sensitization theory B.Habit theory C.Both D.Neither

Answer 33

C: both! habit account: when u go home theres lots of stimuli that can trigger the habitual response: seek the drug IST: drug associates cues at home trigger craving so overall: drug craving and seeking can be triggered again by cues in the home environment.

Question 34

Which theory can account for the lower relapse rates in Vietnam soldiers compared to relapse in individuals returning from a drug rehab center where they were treated for heroin use? A.Incentive-sensitization theory B.Habit theory C.Both D.Neither

Answer 34

C. both for soldiers, their home environment was not yet associated w the drug use or seeking response so stimuli dont trigger habitual response of seeking drug & dont trigger craving since theyre not associated with drugs (the stimuli in home environment)

Question 35

What is the primary reason for conducting the outcome devaluation test in extinction? A.To prevent food waste. B. Otherwise the rats will press so much that they become tired. C. To prevent learning based on the new outcome value. D. Otherwise rats will become satiated.

Answer 35

C. according to law of effect! food outcome becomes less valuable so relationship becomes weaker

Question 36

Who are the authors of the habit theory of addiction? A. Everitt & Robbins B. Leshner & Volkow C. Berridge & Robinson D. Wiers & Field

Answer 36

A

Question 37

Which subcortical brain region has been most strongly implicated in goal-directed action? A. (Posterior) putamen B. Ventromedial prefrontal cortex C. Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex D. Caudate

Answer 37

D

Question 38

How have cue reactivity studies shown indirect evidence for the role of habits in addiction?

Answer 38

fMRI cue reactivity studies show that pics of drugs/alcohol activate the striatal habit region (dorsal striatum) -> could indicate activation of a habit

Question 39

How have self report studies shown indirect evidence for the role of habits in addiction? whats the issue w this research?

Answer 39

self report habit index predicted the behvioural frequency of using each substance issue: as a self report measure, it relies on ability to reflect upon controllability & automaticity of drug seeking

Question 40

How can the outcome devaluation paradimg be used to answer this question: Do drugs/alcohol have an acute effect on goal directed action?

Answer 40

one group had vodka the other placebo: then both did an outcome devaluation procedure where they had to train to press for water / chocolate & then satiated on choc. less outcome devalution effect in vodka group -> aclohol shifted balance from goal directed control to habitual control

Question 41

What are the 5 main findings on the role of habits in addiction?

Answer 41

- drugs/alcohol have an acute effect on goal directed action (it impairs it, so it increases habits) - drug seeking becomes habitual w repetition - habit formation is accelared for drug rewards relative to natural rewards - substance abuse leads to a general tendency to fall back on rigid habtis - drug habits can be compulsive

Question 42

Define cognitive dissonance

Answer 42

discomfort from holding conflicting beliefs or attitudes. ppl try to resolve this discomfort by changing their beliefs or justifying their actions.

Question 43

What are the implications of habit theory of substance abuse on treatment?

Answer 43

- target habitual behaviour & the triggering stimuli (environment) - long term intervention needed - contextual cue managemenet

Question 44

How could cognitive dissonance affect the interpretation of one's addictive behaviour

Answer 44

may lead to denial / rationalization of their addictive behaviour, protect their self image by minimizing discrepancies, selectively attend to supporting info etc