L2: LEADERSHIP & ORGANIZATION, SYSTEM, AND CHANGE Flashcards
involves influencing the attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and feelings of other people
Leadership
Two Types of Leader
- Formal Leader
- Informal Leader
An organization assigns the role of leader to a person
Formal Leader
A type of leader that developed through
interaction with colleagues
Informal Leader
Who described five bases of power one person has over another?
French and Raven (1959)
the extent to which one person can influence another to do something
Power
Types of Power
- Expert Power
- Referent Power
- Legitimate Power
- Reward Power
- Coercive Power
type of power that is based on the knowledge and expertise that the supervisor has
Expert Power
the extent to which the subordinate likes and
identifies with the supervisor
Referent Power
power inherent in a supervisor’s job title.
Legitimate Power
ability of the supervisor to reward subordinates
Reward Power
ability of the supervisor to punish subordinates
Coercive Power
Sources of Leadership Power
- Political Action
- Controlling Decision Processes
- Forming Coalitions
- Co-opting
the process by which people gain and protect their power within the
organization
Political Action
involves controlling and influencing important decisions in the organization, such as the allocation of resources
Controlling Decision Processes
means entering into agreements with others to support your position in return for your support of the others’ position.
Forming Coalitions
involves trying to diffuse another faction’s opposition by allowing its members to participate in the decision
Co-opting
extent to which a person is able to influence others to engage in behavior that is beneficial to that person or to the organization
Political Skills
4 Political Skills
- Social Astuteness
- Interpersonal Influence
- Networking Ability
- Apparent Sincerity
the ability to understand people and social situation
Social Astuteness
the skill of convincing other people to engage in the behavior desired or to accept a particular
position.
Interpersonal Influence
involves developing relationships with a wide range of individuals and managing those relationships to accomplish objectives
Networking Ability
the skill of appearing to be or really being honest, open, and trustworthy.
Apparent Sincerity
Refers to the unique traits or characteristics of individuals who became leaders
Leader Emergence
Research indicates that between 17% and 30%
of leader emergence has a ___ ___
genetic basis
Traits that are more
likely to become leaders
■ Openness
■ Conscientiousness
■ Extraversion
■ Masculinity
■ Creativity
■ Authoritarianism
■ Low Neuroticism
True or False
Less intelligent individuals tend to
emerge as leaders over more intelligent ones
False.
More intelligent individuals tend to emerge as leaders over less intelligent ones
True or False
High self-monitors, who adapt to social situations, emerge as leaders more often than low self-monitors.
Types of Leaders
- Person Oriented Leaders (Theory Y)
- Task Oriented Leaders (Theory X)
High in consideration, acts in a warm and
supportive manner, by showing concerns for
their subordinates
Person Oriented Leaders (Theory Y)
High in initiating structure, defines and structure their own and subordinates roles to attain the formal goals
Task Oriented Leaders
A measure of leadership that classifies leader into one of five leadership styles
Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid
considered as the best team leaders and
are both task and person oriented
Team Management Leaders
considered as the worst since they are neither task nor person oriented
Impoverished Leaders
leaders with moderate amounts of both person and task orientations
Middle-of-the-Road Leaders
leaders that have low
concern for production, but high concern for people
Country Club Leaders
leaders that have a
high concern for production, but low
concern for people
Authority-Compliance
Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid can be measured using:
- Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ)
- Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ)
used to measure perceptions of a leader’s style by their subordinates
Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ)
used to measure a leader’s self perception of their leadership style
Leadership Opinion Questionnaire
(LOQ)
Leadership Styles
- Participative
- Autocratic
- Transactional
- Transformational
concerned with what leaders do rather than what their personal characteristics might be.
Leader Behavior Approach
cluster of related
behaviors that represent an approach to dealing with subordinate
Leadership Style
a style of asking advice
and having discussions about issue
Participative
a style in which
subordinates are given little input, and the decision is announced to the group
Autocratic
a style where the
leader focuses on a task-oriented behaviors
Transactional
a style in which
the leader changes the nature and goals of an organization
Transformational
Yukl (1982), Carter (1952), Hemphill and Coons (1950), and Gibbs (1969) proposed a behavioral theory that
suggests leaders:
○ Initiate ideas
○ Informally interact with subordinates
○ Stand up for and support subordinates
○ Take responsibility
○ Develop a positive group atmosphere
○ Organize and structure work
○ Communicate formally with subordinates
○ Reward and punish subordinates
○ Set goals
○ Make decisions
○ Train and develop employee skills
○ Solve problems
○ Generate enthusiasm
Five Characteristics of a Good Leader
- Vision
- Differentiation
- Values
- Transmission
- Flaws
Effective leaders have a clear ___ for the organization’s future and guide their teams toward that goal.
vision
Leadership Theories
- Theory Y Leaders
- Theory X Leaders
- Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
- Path-Goal Theory
- Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
- Transformational Leadership Theory
a theory states that
leadership is a function of both the person and
the situation.
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
Under Fiedler’s Contingency Theory, ___ characteristic of the leader and ___ characteristics of the situation determine leadership effectiveness.
𝗢𝗻𝗲 characteristic of the leader and 𝘁𝗵𝗿𝗲𝗲
characteristics of the situation determine
leadership effectiveness.
two main leadership styles in Fiddler’s Contingency Theory
○ 𝗧𝗮𝘀𝗸 𝗢𝗿𝗶𝗲𝗻𝘁𝗲𝗱 -focused on achieving goals
○ 𝗥𝗲𝗹𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻𝘀𝗵𝗶𝗽 𝗢𝗿𝗶𝗲𝗻𝘁𝗲𝗱 - focused on
building strong team dynamics
To assess a leader’s style, Fiedler developed?
Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) Scale
In Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) Scale,
- High LPC score indicates?
- Low LPC score suggests?
○ High LPC score indicates a relationship-oriented leader,
○ Low LPC score suggests a task-oriented leader
The situational context, according to Fiedler, is
defined by three factors:
○ Leader-member Relations
○ Task Structure
○ Position Power
the level of trust and respect between the leader and the team.
Leader-member Relations
expectations of others about appropriate behavior in a specific position
roles
when an individual is faced with
incompatible or competing demands
role conflict
uncertainty about the behaviors to be exhibited in a role, or boundaries that define a role
Role Ambiguity
how clear and
structured the tasks are
Task Structure
when an individual feels overwhelmed
from having too many responsibilities
Role Overload
the extent to which different roles are performed by employees in the same subgroup
Role Differentiation
shared group expectations about appropriate behavior
norms
developed through a process of
observation
descriptive norms
developed through a process of
conforming to gain social approval
Injunctive Norms
shared meaning organizational members attach to the events, policies, practices, and procedures they experience, and the behaviors they see being rewarded, supported, and expected
organizational climate
the degree of authority
the leader has to reward or punish
Position Power
Focuses on how leaders motivate their followers
to achieve goals by clarifying the path to success and removing obstacles
Path-Goal Theory
languages, values, attitudes, beliefs, and customs of an organization
organizational culture
Leadership Styles under Path-Goal Theory
○ Supportive Style
○ Directive Style
○ Participative Style
○ Achievement Style
designed specifically to measure
organizational structure assesses the company’s culture in terms of
dimensions
Organizational Practices Scale
● aka person-organization congruence
● the process of gauging the degree to fit between the two parties is mutual
Person Organization Fit
decision to cut jobs, one of the most radical and tumultuous ways an organization can change in response to pressures
Downsizing
involves the loss of jobs within
a department, but the department remains within the organization
Horizontal Cut
involves elimination of all jobs
in the department
Vertical Cut
companies use external employees to perform internal functions which is known to be less costly than hiring its own employees to perform these services
Outsourcing
Style involves showing
concern for the needs and welfare of
subordinates.
Supportive Style
Style involves structuring job tasks for subordinates and letting them know what is expected
Directive Style
marriage of two organizations of equal status and power
Organizational Merger
procurement of property by another organization
Acquisition
3 phases of acquision
Precombination, Combination,
and Postcombination
often forced by circumstances and crises that are beyond the control of those in charge, resulting in hurried changes in response to an emergency.
Organizational Change
planned, organization-wide effort to increase organizational effectiveness through behavioral
science knowledge and technology
Organizational Development (OD)
involves seeking
input from subordinates and allowing them to participate in decision making
Participative Style
the catalyst for change within the
organization
change agent
involves
emphasizing achievement and good
performance
Achievement Style
an organizational change technique that is based on goal-setting
Management by Objectives (MBO)
Focuses on the relationship between leaders and individual followers, emphasizing that leaders do not treat all team members the same
Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
have considerable and
unusual influence over their followers
Charismatic Leaders
Consists of subordinates who
are trusted and influential members of the work group.
Cadre (In-group)
Subordinates who are
supervised with a directive style and are given little input into decisions.
Hired Hands (Out-Group)
**“Hierarchy” Structure **
> managers have smaller span of control, longer chain of command, provide a clear, distinct layers with obvious lines of responsibility and control and a clear promotion structure
Tall Structure
involves systematic collection of data, widely used intervention strategy
survey feedback
> span of control is larger, fewer management levels, focused on empowering employing rather than adhering to the chain of command by encouraging autonomy and self-direction; common when the task is repetitive and requires minimal supervision
Flat Structure
the extent to which leaders encourage followers with their statements and model high standards of behavior
Idealized Influence
> divides the organization into departments based on the functions or tasks performed.
creates job specialists but overly focused on their own department and area of specialization
Functional Structure
○ aka continuous improvement or quality management
○ focuses on employee involvement in the control of quality in organizations
Total Quality Management (TQM)
> based on types of products or customers > each division operates almost as if it were a separate organization
can easily expand products or services merely by adding a new division but there is a duplication of areas of expertise
Divisional Structure
○ involves paying employees a bonus based on improvements in productivity
○ link between pay and performance leads to increased employee involvement and job
satisfaction
Gainsharing
> organizational hierarchy
high centralization means decision-making is held by top levels
(A) uniformity
(D) not flexible to the environment and manpower of others
Centralized Structure
focus on the technology and structure of organizations
Technostructural Interventions
> process of taking the decision-making power out
of the hands of the top level and distributing it to lower levels
employees feel that they are treated more fairly in decentralized structures
Decentralized Structure
the intentional approach to change that emphasizes what elevates and inspires individuals and organizations
Positive Organizational Development
3 Levels of Management
TOP-LEVEL MANAGEMENT
MIDDLE-LEVEL MANAGEMENT
LOWER-LEVEL MANAGEMENT
any intervention primarily directed toward creating a new vision for an organization and changing its beliefs, purpose, and mission
Organizational Transformation
(Strategic Decision-Makers)
> Strategic planning, setting goals and objectives, budgeting, overall corporate governance, and other high-level considerations that directly affect projects and initiatives, as well as employee responsibilities and accountabilities
TOP-LEVEL MANAGEMENT
sensitivity training, the use of unstructured group interaction to help workers gain insight into their motivations and their behavior patterns
in dealing with others
T-groups
(Crucial Link)
> Tactical decision-making, resource allocation, and performance monitoring
MIDDLE-LEVEL MANAGEMENT
the study of how organizations function and how they affect and are affected by the environment in
which they operate
organizational theory
(Frontline Supervisors or First Line Level)
> Operational decisions, managing workers, and ensuring productivity
LOWER-LEVEL MANAGEMENT
explain how existing organizations work
descriptive theory
the transmission of information that tells employees what is changing, how this change will affect them, and what they need to do next
Change Communication
indicate how organizations should operate
Prescriptive Theories
can be defined as the transmission of information from one person or group to another person or group
COMMUNICATION
Four Tenets of Classical Theory or Classical Organizational
Theory
- Organizations exist for economic reasons and to accomplish productivity goals.
- Scientific analysis will identify the best way to organize for production.
- Specialization and the division of labor maximize production.
- Both people and organizations act in accordance with rational economic principles.
manipulated by the researcher
Independent variable
concept behind division of labor, that is, organizations should be divided into units that perform similar functions into areas of
specialization
Functional Principle
Components of the Communication Process Model
Context
Noise
Sender
Message
Communication Channel
Receiver
Feedback
○ deals with the organization’s vertical growth
○ chain of command that grows with levels added to the organization
Scalar Principle
Types of Organizational Communication
UPWARD COMMUNICATION
DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
LATERAL COMMUNICATION
have primary responsibilities
for meeting the major goals of the organization, like the production department
line functions
> The flow of messages from the lower levels of the organization to the upper levels
Typically consists of information needed by managers to perform their jobs.
UPWARD COMMUNICATION
support the line’s activities but
are regarded as subsidiary in overall importance
to line functions
Staff Function
Methods to Facilitate Upward Communication
Attitude surveys
Focus groups
Exit Interviews
Suggestion Boxes
Third-Party Facilitators
refers to the number of subordinates a manager
is responsible for supervising
Span-of-Control Principle
> consists of those messages sent from superiors to subordinates
DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION
Structure proposed by sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920) to be the ideal form of organization;
included a formal hierarchy, division of labor, and a
clear set of operating procedures.
Bureaucracy by Max Weber
Methods to Facilitate Downward Communication
Bulletin Boards
Policy Manuals
Newsletters
Intranets
information about which lower-level employees report to higher-level employees in an organization
Delegation of Authority
> the transmission of business-related information among employees, management, and customers.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Methods to Facilitate Business Communication
a. Memos
b. Telephone Calls
c. Email
d. Voice mail
e. Business Meetings
the formal way an organization is designed in terms of division of labor, delegation of authority, and span of control; the number of
levels—or height—of the organization
structure
providing a vision, such as King’s Dream
Inspirational Motivation
> often occurs through the grapevine, an informal communication network that transmits information unofficially.
INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
Four grapevine patterns of informal communication:
○ Single strand: One person passes a message sequentially to others.
○ Gossip: One person selectively shares information with a small group.
○ Probability: The message is passed randomly among employees.
○ Cluster: Select individuals are told, who then pass it on to other select individuals.
encouraging followers to question the status quo and think of better ways to do things.
Intellectual Stimulation
> messages between two parties at the same level in an organizational hierarchy
LATERAL COMMUNICATION
Organizations that acknowledged and aided this growth would be more likely to prosper than those
that ignored or actively inhibited this growth
Argyris’ Growth Perspective
How People Grow According to Argyris
○ From passive to active organisms
○ From dependent to independent organisms
○ From organisms requiring immediate gratification to those capable of delaying gratification
○ From organisms able to deal only with concrete operations to those able to deal with abstractions
○ From organisms with few abilities to those with many abilities
the “it depends” theory
Contingency Theory
This answers the problem of both classical and neoclassical theory
Contingency Theory
● produces specialty products one at a time
● Smallest span-of-control
Small-batch Organization
produces large numbers of discrete units
Large-batch and Mass-production Organization
● depends on a continuous process for output or product, including organizations such as refineries, chemical plants, and distilleries
● largest span-of-control
Continuous-process Organization
proposed that the stability of the environment dictates the most effective form of organization.
Lawrence and Lorsch’s Contingency Theory (1967)
an organization that depends on formal rules and regulations, makes decisions at higher levels and
has small spans of control.
Mechanistic Organization
Emphasizes adapting leadership styles based on the task, the follower’s competence, and their willingness to perform
Situational Leadership Model
argued that one could describe an organization by looking at several categories of characteristic
Mintzberg’s Contingency Model (1979)
Basic Forms of Coordination
○ Mutual adjustments based in informal
communication
○ Direct supervision
○ Standardization of work processes
○ Standardization of the KSAOs necessary for
production
○ Standardization of outputs
○ Standardization of norms
Leadership Styles in Situational Leadership Model
■ Directing
■ Coaching
■ Supporting
■ Delegating
Follower Readiness in
● M1: Unable and
unwilling
● M2: Unable but willing
● M3: Able but unwilling
● M4: Able and willin
a chief executive, or a group of senior leaders, to oversee the entire effort of the organization
Strategic Apex
the midlevel managers and supervisors who
mediate the interactions between the strategic apex and the operating core
Middle Line
analysts who perform specialized technical support functions (engineering, budgeting)
Technostructure
employees who perform administrative functions varying from legal to compensation and benefit administration
Support Staff
an organization’s culture, defined as idiosyncratic traditions and beliefs of the organization.
Ideology
The inherent tension or interplay between the importance or prominence of these parts creates the diversity of configurations that we see when we look
across organizations.
Ideology
the interplay between the internal reality of an organization and the external reality of its
environment and history
Open Systems Theory
suggests that social and technological systems
should be designed to work together harmoniously
Joint optimization
employees should be responsible for resolving work problems they encounter.
Unit control of variance
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation, Job Characteristics Theory, ERG Theory, etc.
Motivation Theories
refers to the arrangement of positions in an organization and the authority and responsibility
relationships among them
Organizational Structure
● have formally defined roles for their members, are very rule-driven, and are stable and resistant to change.
● called “mechanistic” or “bureaucratic” structures
traditional structure
a traditional organizational structure typified by a
well-defined authority hierarchy and strict rules governing work behavior
Bureaucratic Structure
6 Characteristics of Bureaucratic Structure
○ specialization of labor
○ well-defined authority hierarchy
○ formal rules and procedures
○ impersonality (emotionless)
○ employment decision based on merit
○ emphasis on written records (formality)
a traditional organizational structure composed of one group of employees who achieve the
goals of the organization (the line) and another group of employees who support the line (staff)
Line Staff Organizational Structure
employees in an organization who are engaged directly in tasks that accomplish its goals
Line
specialized employee positions designed to support the line
staff
● less formalized work roles and procedures (organic)
● work best in unstable environment
Non-traditional Structure
● an organizational design that is structured both by product and function simultaneously
● the “why-not-both” structure
Matrix Structure
business structure where team members are the focus of achieving an organization’s goals
Team-based Organizational Structure
Workers may present problems as crises to prompt management
into making quick decisions.
Exaggeration in Upward
Communication
Foundation of both practice and the science of IO
Research
the researcher’s best guess about what the results of a study will be or a theoretical answer
Hypothesis
- basic building blocks of a design
- an attribute or characteristic of people or things
that can vary
Variable
process that eliminates
systematic influences on how subjects
are treated in a study
Random
assign people to various
treatment conditions or levels of an independent variable in a nonsystematic
way.
Random Assignment
choose the subjects of our investigation by a nonsystematic method
Random Selection
when two or more variables are intertwined in such a way that conclusions cannot be drawn
about either one
Confounding
follows all the same steps as the classic pre-test/post-test design except that it omits the
pre-test.
Post-test Design
BARRIERS TO THE EFFECTIVE FLOW
OF COMMUNICATION
FILTERING
EXAGGERATION
Selective presentation of content, where certain pieces of information are left out of the message.
FILTERING
Distortion of information by elaborating or overemphasizing certain aspects of a message.
EXAGGERATION
External events or changes in the
environment can influence the outcome, making it difficult to attribute the change solely to the intervention.
History Effects
researcher might watch individual employees conducting their jobs for a period of time.
obtrusive method
the subjects of study
might be aware that the researcher was present, but they would not know that they were being studied
Unobtrusive method
AKA Classical Controlled Experimental Design
Pretest-Posttest Design
