L13: urine as an indicator of disease Flashcards

1
Q

Advantages of urinalysis

A
  • non-invasive diagnosis
  • easily obtained - feasible in local GP practice
  • normal composition is mostly known
  • for prerenal or renal diseases
  • changes in levels of what should be present including material that normally occurs only at low basal levels.
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2
Q

Normal levels of urinary excretion

A

95% water

4:21 for rest of compounds

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3
Q

How are urine samples collected?

A
  • in clean/sterile containers
  • sometimes preservatives need to be used but this can affect analysis
  • random samples - clean catch midstream specimen timing of sampling depends on test required
  • test as soon as possible since bacteria will multiply, glucose levels drop, pH drops, crystals may form or disperse
  • 24h specimen - empty bladder first
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4
Q

Volume of urine in 24hrs

A

Depends on body size, diet, and fluid intake

Normally 0.8-2.0L

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5
Q

Appearance of urine when things go wrong

A
  • normal urine: pale yellow and clear
  • concentrated urine (e.g. dehydration): dark
  • frothy/foamy urine - proteinuria, conjugated bilirubin
  • fat globules floating around
  • cloudy urine - due to excess cellular material, elevated protein output, high lipids, WBCs, high milk intake due to high phosphates
  • red urine: blood. Blood in urethra (early), throughout (bladder), end (prostrate)
  • red urine: pseudohematuria: free Hb, myoglobin, porphyria’s, drugs (laxatives, desferrioxamine, rifampicin, anti-inflammatories).
  • red/brown: conjugated bilirubin
  • black: melanin (disseminated melanoma)
  • other hues: foods, drugs, supplements
  • if urine darks on standing, e.g. caused by alkaptonuria and porphyria
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6
Q

Microscopic examination of urine

A

Centrifuge a mixed sample of urine and examine the sediment

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7
Q

What is the sediment in urine examined for?

A
  1. Bacteria - confirm dipstick tests for nitrite production then couture to quantitate
  2. Cells - more than 10 white cells per ml can indicate kidney damage, red cell can indicate kidney damage
  3. Casts (cylindrical bodies) - e.g., hyaline or fine granular. Normal finding especially post exercise and is not proteinuria. 1 red cell cast is always pathological.
  4. Crystals - problem is they aggregate to form stones. Most common is oxalate crystals. Cystine, amorphous crystals, triple phosphate etc. Limited clinical value.
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8
Q

What is the pH range for urine?

A

4.5-8

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9
Q

What can too much meat in the diet do to the urine?

A

Make it more acidic

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10
Q

What can too much citrus fruit and veg in the diet do to the urine?

A

Make it more alkaline

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11
Q

What diseases can cause pH extremes - acidic?

A

Uncontrolled diabetes, starvation, respiratory disorders.

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12
Q

What diseases can cause pH extremes - alkaline?

A

Urinary tract obstruction, some respiratory disorders - hyperventila

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13
Q

What acidic substances in diet can cause risk of stones?

A

Uric acid, cystine

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14
Q

What alkaline substances in diet can cause risk of stones?

A

Ca2+, MgPO4, CaCO3

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15
Q

Why is creatinine clearance (CC) a good GFR indicator?

A

In muscles, phosphocreatine acts as a major energy reserve.
1-2% of the muscle pool spontaneously degrades to creatinine by the activity of creatine kinase, daily at a constant rate in good health and glomerular filtration with minimal tubular reabsorption/secretion.

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16
Q

When is CC a less useful indicator of GFR?

A

GFR might increase if there is an excessive meat diet.

GFR might decrease during wasting disease, malnutrition (or strict vegetarianism), or poor renal blood flow or function.

17
Q

Pre-renal disorders

A
  • Kidney function is normal

Overspill due to:
• increased solution filtration due to increased production in the body
• abnormal metabolite (no suitable transporter)

Decreased solute filtration
• decreased production in the body
• decreased delivery (e.g. cardiac failure, haemorrhage, burns)

18
Q

Renal disorders

A
  • Kidney is abnormal

Glomerular malfunction:
• infection, autoimmune disease, inflammation
• allows leakage of proteins

Tubular malfunction:
• infection, autoimmune disease, inflammation, necrosis, drugs, toxins
• causes defective reabsorption e.g., of glucose
• causes defective secretion e.g., of H+

19
Q

What two kinds of disorder can cause abnormal solute excretion?

A

Pre-renal and renal

20
Q

What factors increase the output of urea?

A
  • excess protein intake (more deaminated amino acids) - surplus excreted
  • factors that trigger greater protein catabolism:
    • protein energy malnutrition (negative nitrogen balance degrades body protein to use the ketogenic amino acids for energy)
    • uncontrolled type 1 diabetes
    • infections, burns, wasting diseases, trauma inclined surgery or a broken limb/GI bleeding.
21
Q

Factors decreasing excretion of urea?

A
  • low protein diet, severe liver disease/genetic defects (liver struggles to perform the urea cycle)
  • glomerular nephritis, acute tubular necrosis
  • poor renal blood supply or renal obstruction - stones, tumour

Outcomes: hyperammonaemia, NH4+ crosses the blood brain barrier (BBB). Causes lethargy, irritability and finally coma.

22
Q

Normal amount of glucose excreted in the urine

A

Excrete <0.2% of the glucose normally

23
Q

Normal amount of glucose excreted in the urine

A

Excrete <0.2% of the glucose normally filtered by the glomerulus (0.03-0.3 g/day)

24
Q

How to test for glucose in the urine?

A
Reagent strip (glucose oxidase)
Bleaching effect occurs of the dye to give a visible colour change
25
Q

What happens if glucose is elevated in the urine?

A
Metabolic hyperglycaemia (high in the urine because it is high in the blood)
E.g., due to diabetes mellitus type 1. Might be due to anxiety or stress. Might be in response to phaeochromocytoma (tumour of adrenal medulla) due to excess of adrenaline.

2% of pop have a reduced renal threshold. So output of glucose is always above the usual range. In pregnancy or renal glycosuria (genetic).

Tubular malfunction: generalised tubular dysfunction that is secondary to other damage e.g. heavy metal poisoning, drugs, Fanconi syndrome = defective tubular re absorption of most amino acids, glucose, urate, phosphate etc.

26
Q

Other sugars abnormally excreted in the urine

A

Galactose - galactose (spill over of galactose -1-phosphate. Positive test for reducing substances.
Lactose - lactation; primary lactase deficiency, coeliac disease
Fructose - fructose intolerance, essential fructosuria
Pentoses- essential pentosuria

27
Q

Ketones in the urine

A

Elevated ketones in uncontrolled diabetes type 1 and in starvation

28
Q

Amino acidurias

A

Elevated amino acid content in the urine due to:

  • generalised tubular damage
  • specific transporter defects (cystinuria, Hartnup’s disease)
  • raised plasma amino acids (PKU, cystinosis)
29
Q

Conjugated bilirubin in the urine

A

Presence is reflective of liver damage or obstructed bile ducts

30
Q

Proteinuria

A

Elevated output of protein in a persons urine. Proteinuria >200mg/24hrs of proteins

Pre-renal problem: overflow due to presence in plasma of a high concentration of a low molecular weight protein, which is filtered in a quantity exceeding tubular reabsorptive capacity, e.g. Bence Jones protein.

Renal problem: glomerular due to increased glomerular permeability; tubular due to impaired or saturate reabsorption of protein filtered by normal glomeruli; secreted due to secretion by kidneys or epithelium of urinary tract.

31
Q

How does protein size in proteinuria determine whether it is a pre-renal or renal problem?

A

Low molecular weight - kidney is typically normal, e.g., myoglobin
Medium to high molecular weight - a damaged kidney, e.g., albumin

32
Q

Phenylketonuria

A
  • results in excretion of phenylpyruvate
  • Phe - by protein synthesis it is converted by Phe hydroxyl add to tyrosine.
  • genetic deficiency of Phe hydroxyl are results in classical PKU.
  • Phe acetate overspills into urine
  • early diagnosis is vital to minimise neurological damage