L1: Introduction to Teams in Organizations Flashcards
..understand and explain the input-process-output model of group work ..understand and explain the characteristics and functions of groups and teams
Groupthink
A mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when members’ strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action. Main aim is to maintain consensus and group harmony
General definition of groups
individuals that bond together to accomplish important outcomes (from pre-historic times to present day and across species). Groups can have a common cause, but are not really working together.
Specific definitions of groups
Lewin: people are a group when they experience similar outcomes
Bales: face-to-face interaction and group means members that meet on a regular basis
Sherif and Sherif: social structure is essential
Tajfel: groups exist when members identify with group
What is the difference between groups and teams?
Groups only have social interaction among people with common causes. But teams have this in common and: possessing common task goals, performing organizationally relevant tasks, exhibit interdependence, have different roles and responsibilities, part of a larger organizational system
What are the functions of groups and teams?
- facilitate accomplishment of certain tasks which could not be done individually
- satisfies need to belong, fulfilling social and interpersonal needs
- allows us to make sense of the world→ social comparison theory (provides a comparison for fairness and how well we are doing)
- allows us to understand ourselves→ social identity and self-categorization theory
- provides utilitarian benefits→ exchange theory
Group entitativity
The degree to which a collection of people are perceived as being bonded together in a coherent unit.
Which factors increase entitativity?
Interdependence: when a group member’s individual performance or outcomes depend on individual and group actions. They depend on each other to accomplish the task and receive valued outcomes
Importance: how important the group is due to consequences and tasks. The group also has meaning and value for members
Interaction: form of communication among group members, engaging in formal/informal activities and relations
Similarity: forming a group due to similar interests and the degree of resemblance on certain attributes
Cohesion: force binding members to the group, persuading them to stay which motivates the group. It is the attraction and commitment to the group
Duration: the length of time the group has been together
Which factors decrease entitativity?
Group size: number of group members
Permeability: how easy it is to enter or leave the group
Which properties either increase or decrease entitativity?
Group structure: established specific characteristics, norms, roles and status differences in the group
Task interdependence
refers to the degree to which group members are mutually dependent on one another to accomplish their tasks
Outcome interdependence
refers to the degree to which group members are mutually dependent to receive valued outcomes
Task cohesion
Shared commitment to group’s tasks
Interpersonal cohesion
Attraction to the group
Why is the relationship between cohesion and performance complicated?
Relationship between cohesion and performance could depend on goal acceptance, motivating members to work hard towards performance goals. There was no relation between cohesion and performance for groups that did not accept company goals.
What is the most important predictor of group entitativity?
Interaction was the best predictor, but group size and permeability showed a weak negative relationship. This is because in order to build cohesion, interaction is needed as there need to be chances to meet. Cohesion is the second most important (as interaction is the predecessor).
Why are groups important?
- tasks cannot be completed by individuals working alone, or less inefficient or more fun in a group
- fulfils social need to belong, improving wellbeing
- strong resistance when there are threats to dissolve the group, people want to be liked and included and being rejected by group members has negative consequences for wellbeing
- groups help to understand our world through social comparison theory (people want to have accurate views of themselves and of the world by turning to others)
Social identity theory
This is the part of the self-concept that is derived from group membership. So, group membership contributes to self-identity. Argues that seeing yourself and others as members of groups to reduce uncertainty and make sense of our world
Exchange theory
Argues that social relations fulfill individual’s needs through exchange processes like material goods, interpersonal helping, and psychological goods like love, friendship and approval. This theory argues that social relations involves costs, benefits, but benefits need to exceed the costs to yield profit. Satisfaction depends on degree to which other relationships exist to obtain more profit
Why do organizations increasingly use groups?
- They are faster, more flexible, and quicker to adapt.
- More skill diversity and higher levels of expertise.
What is the input-processes-outcome model?
The inputs are the predictors, processes are the mediators and the outcomes are the outcome variables.
1. Inputs: individual characteristics, individual, team and organizational resources. Such as background, preferences and team diversity
2. Processes: cognitive factors, affective/motivational and behavioural factors (what a team feels, does and thinks). For example, perception of the team climate, cohesion are both part of the processes. Cognitive is the perception, but not independent of feelings.
3. Outcomes: performance (was the assignment achieved?), meeting member needs, viability (success of team)
4. Team interventions: this impacts the whole model, team leadership, team design, team training and development
Note: not a sequential model, as outputs can become inputs again, creating a feedback loop
What are some examples of inputs, processes, interventions and outputs?
Inputs: based on personality, background and preferences, team diversity
Processes: social influence, free-riding, group biases, information-exchange and minority influence and coordination
Context/interventions: diversity, inter-team links, communication medium, training, leadership
Outputs: decision-making, creativity, performance and motivation
Qualitative research
Involves studying groups for extended periods of time like interviews, observations. Offers a rich, detailed picture, resulting in an elaborate description. But only a few participants can be studied extensively-> lacks generalizability. Data can be very rich so drawing conclusions is hard-> subjective interpretation. This method is better for generating theories and finding new areas of research but less useful for testing theories
Surveys and correlational designs
Giving structured questionnaires with rating scales to a large number of people. This is used to quantify variables, using correlation coefficients. Can also be studied longitudinally. Strengths: quantifying variables and relations, real world relevance. Limitations: rely on subjective data which could be biased, not possible to establish causality and third-variable problem.
How can different sources be used to collect data?
- using different people to measure different variables
- combining questionnaires with other data sources
Cross-lagged panel correlations
This is measuring the same variables at different points in time, measuring auto-correlations which reflect stability over time. Makes it easy to look at causality issues by seeing if one variable preces the other and the other.
Experiments
A situation is created under the control of the researcher, which allows for manipulations. Participants are assigned to conditions at random. Strengths: testing for causal relations due to manipulation, 3rd variables are evenly distributed (minimizing systematic differences). Limitation: reliance on artificial situations raises questions questions around generalizability in less controlled situations
Quasi-experiments
This is using the existing situation to look for differences between conditions, but results in a lack of control over the situation. Third variables could play a role, and less likely to be able to draw causal conclusions
Model of group socialization
Distinguishes 5 stages of group membership: investigation, socialization, maintenance, re-socialization, remembrance. Moving from one stage to the next involves role transition. Investigation to socialization is transition of entry, then acceptance (new to full member), divergence (full to marginal member) and exit (marginal to ex-member). The stages differ in commitment: the degree to which a group member identifies with a group and maintains membership
What is important for entry?
This is marked by a ritual or ceremony, the initiation can sometimes be unpleasant. This can deter prospective members not committed to the new group, can lead to strong relationships. Linked to cognitive dissonance
What is important during socialization?
New members learn the norms of the group (the rules that prescribe appropriate attitudes and behaviours) and their role in the group (set of behaviours with a certain position). Commitment usually increases. But it depends on the staffing level of the group which is whether the number of group members is similar to the ideal one. It is easier to become a member for an understaffed group than an overstaffed one
What is important during the maintenance stage?
There are high levels of commitment , members occupy the role in the group that satisfies their needs and achieve the group’s goals. Role of leader, recruiter and trainer (socialization of new members). If role negotiations are successful, the relation between the group and the member will be rewarding
Why does divergence occur?
Group members lose interest, other groups are more rewarding, commitment declines due to failed expectations of the member. Divergence can follow by re-socialization, persuading members not to leave or accommodate their wishes. After that there is usually an exit and can be social exclusion.
What occurs in the remembrance stage?
The ex member and the group retrospectively evaluate each other, can maintain commitment to ex-members if positive. Ex-members can try to destroy their former group due to revenge
What did research find about pressure on deviants?
Group members usually exert pressure on members who deviate from the group norm, but if unsuccessful, the group will exclude them. There was a high number of communications towards the deviate, representing attempts to pressure them to change their position
How do groups develop?
- Forming is when group members can feel insecure due to not knowing each other and the expectations, but they begin to develop a shared identity
- Storming involves challenges in developing a group structure, disagreements about roles of the group
- Norming is when group members agree on goals, and develop norms for group interaction
- Performing is when efforts are directed to achieving the group’s task
- Adjourning is when the task has been accomplished or abandoned, the group will end
What is the best-known coding system of group interaction?
Interaction process analysis which distinguishes between task behaviours and socioemotional behaviours (interpersonal relations in the group which can be positive or negative). Task-related behaviour needed to accomplish goals, but can lead to conflict. So socio-emotional behaviour needed for group harmony. These change depending on group stages (forming -> positive socioemotional behaviours). More time together meant more task-related behaviours, the opposite for less time. Criticism: changes occur gradually rather than abruptly
How can IPA be used to look at status and roles inside a group?
- groups develop a speaking hierarchy as some group members talk more than others, and this discrepancy increases with the size of the group. People who talk more are seen as more influential
- those who engage in task-related behaviours are task specialists but those engaging in socio-emotional behaviours are socio-emotional specialists. these are less influential but were more liked
Expectation states theory
Discusses how status structures emerge in groups and how they are shaped by the status of group members. Assumes that inequalities in a group are due to performance expectations (members form expectations about the usefulness of each member’s contributions). These are influenced by status characteristics which is distinguished by diffuse status characteristics (race, gender, age) and specific status characteristics. There can be cultural expectations about competencies, which need to be falsified to lose their influence.
Why does majority influence occur?
This is when a larger subgroup produced conformity in a smaller sub-group, which is due to normative social influence (conforming to expectations of others and having positive evaluations) and informational social influence (to gain evidence about reality). NSI more likely when part of a group for being collectively reward, but weaker when participants were anonymous. When pps had to do the task from memory, they had a stronger ISI effect as they relied on social reality
What is NSI and ISI related to?
NSI is related to public compliance- a change in behaviour without changing private beliefs. ISI is related to a real change in private opinions known as private acceptance
What did Stoner find?
He asked groups to respond to a number of scenarios with a degree of risk, had a dilemma between high probability of success and low value or low probability of success and high value. Responded to the dilemmas in private then as a group and made an individual decision. The group judgement was more risky than the average judgements. If answers were cautious, then they became even more cautious. So the choice became even more extreme-> group polarization.
Why does group polarization occur?
Social comparison: want to be seen as favourable, want to give true opinion without being too extreme or deviate too much from group members. At the start the initial opinion is less extreme, but with similar opinions they express true opinions. Favourable to be slightly different
Persuasive arguments theory: position on an issue is determined by number and persuasiveness of pro and con arguments, but group members provide different and new valid arguments, which supports the opinion even more
How does minority influence work?
This is when smaller subgroups produce change in larger subgroups. Minorities can be influential as they make other group members less certain about their own opinions by being consistent (confederate changed opinion of other participants Mascovici et al). Conversion theory argues that minority influence will results in private acceptance as they are less threatening and if consistent with good arguments, can convince others. But people will not shown conversion of a focal issue (due to large association with minorities) but change opinion on a related issue (indirect influence)
What did research findings suggest?
Majorities had a bigger influence on minorities through direct influence and in public and private. But minorities had more influence on indirect influence, and higher consistency resulted in more minority influence-> Mascovici partially right
How do minorities and majorities stimulate different thought processes?
Having a different opinion to a majority causes stress which narrows attention, so cognitive efforts are limited to verifying the majority position. Most people assume the minority is incorrect, but if maintained will consider the issue more thoroughly. Known as divergent thinking, linked to more open-minded thinking and creativity
How was minority vs majority studied?
Participants told that either 80% of slides were judged to be blue and 20% green or the other way round. They judged the slides of the colour, with a confederate and had to write associations with the words. When exposed to a minority, the associations were more original.
What is the importance of psychological safety?
This is the belief that you will not be punished when you make a mistake. This allows for moderate risk-taking, speaking your mind, creativity and being able to stand out. Without psychological safety, the fight or flight response will be triggered (minimizing analytical reasoning).
Broaden-and-build theory
Positive emotions like trust, curiosity, confidence and inspiration broaden the mind and can help build psychological, social, and physical resources. Humour solution-finding and divergent thinking all increase. Oxytocin will also rise
How can psychological safety be increased?
- by approaching conflict as a collaborator, not an adversary (perception of loss results in criticism, competition etc)
- speak human to human without blaming individuals, promote trust and positive language
- prepare for likely reactions when having difficult conversations
- replace blame with curiosity which could escalate conflict
- ask for feedback on delivery which increases trust in leaders
- measure psychological safety by surveys on safety, resulting in more engagement and motivation
How to replace blame with curiosity?
State the problematic behaviour or outcome as an observation, use factual, neutral language. Then engage them in exploration and ask for solutions
What are the cognitive team processes?
These represent the structure of collective perception, cognitive structure, or knowledge perception, and knowledge and information acquisition
Examples of cognitive team processes?
Team climate: Team perception of the environment (e.g., service climate, innovative climate)
Team mental models: Shared model of knowledge or beliefs related to key elements of the team task (information held in common)
Team transactive memory: Group-level system of encoding, storing, and retrieving information located across group members (who knows what)
Team learning: The active process by which teams acquire knowledge, skills, and performance capabilities (such as mental models or transactive memory)
Motivational/affective team processes
Team cohesion: Attraction of members to group (both task and social-related)
Team efficacy: Shared belief in the group’s collective ability to obtain goals
Team affect, mood, and emotions: Good or bad feelings held by members in the group
Team conflict: Process arising from real or perceived incompatibilities among team members
Behavioural team processes
Team coordination, cooperation, and communication: process by which members actions are synchronized
Team member competencies: how the knowledge, skills, and abilities shape ability of team to accomplish task (e.g., resource distribution, timing, motivation)
Team regulation, performance dynamics, and adaptation: process of team task demands varying and cycle around a task episode and how members interactions and performance can be regulated in line with these cycles
Explain the different team interventions
Team design: Making sure the team is aligned with organizational context and task and has adequate resources
Team training and development: Process or intervention by which teams and individuals acquire skills and improve processes
Team leadership: The use of influence within the team to guide the team in task accomplishment
Explain the outputs of a team
Meeting member needs: satisfaction, identification, etc.
Team viability: willingness of members to remain in the
team (is important as when people leave the team, you may lose necessary knowledge and skills, and you will need to replace them)
How can the IPO model be applied to the Delizona et al article?
Inputs: approaching conflict in a collaborative way, speaking human to human, anticipating reactions/preparing responses, replacing blame with curiosity, asking for feedback on delivery
Process: psychological safety
Output: team performance
