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PSYC 211 > L05 > Flashcards

L05 Flashcards

1
Q

What is a receptor protein?

A

A protein that is sensitive to and capable of communicating some signal. They are either ionotropic or metabotropic.

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2
Q

What is an ionotropic receptor?

A

A receptor protein that is an ion channel. The properties of the pore of the ion channel (the hole) determine if it will produce EPSPs or IPSPs (if it lets in sodium or chloride ions). The direct effect of ionotropic receptor activation is always an immediate change in the permeability of the membrane to specific ions (whatever ions pass through the receptor). Ionotropic receptors turn toward ions to mediate their effect.

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3
Q

What is a metabotropic receptor?

A

A receptor protein that is not an ion channel. Activated metabotropic receptors trigger intracellular signals to catalyze chemical reactions. They typically trigger an intracellular signaling cascade that involves g proteins, which can produce a variety of cellular effects such as a change in gene expression or the opening/closing of g protein-gated ion channels. The effects of metabotropic receptor signaling can be quite large, but they are often delayed (because they rely on signaling cascades and diffusion). Metabotropic receptors that turn toward the metabolism to mediate their effects.

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4
Q

What does the suffix “-tropic” mean?

A

I means “turn toward”.

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5
Q

What does metabolism refer to?

A

Chemical reactions that occur inside of cells.

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6
Q

What are “g proteins”?

A

They are proteins that use GTP molecules instead of ATP molecules for the energy they need to perform chemical reactions. They are like molecular switches:. When a g protein is bound to GTP, it is “ON” or activated, because in this state it can trigger chemical reactions. This state is temporary, however, because G proteins have a natural tendency to convert GTP to GDP. When this happens, the g protein is “OFF” or inactivated.

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7
Q

Do g proteins have a hard time letting go of GDP?

A

Yes. The only way they can do so is by finding an activated metabotropic receptor. They use the intracellular side of the activated metabotropic receptor to pry off their GDP molecule. When this happens, they bind another GTP molecule and the process starts over again.

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8
Q

What is a g protein ion channel?

A

Ion channels that are gated by g proteins. G proteins are a family of intracellular proteins that are involved in intracellular signaling cascades.

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9
Q

What does GPCR mean?

A

G protein-coupled receptor

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10
Q

What are the steps to a metabotropic G protein-coupled receptor causing an ion channel opening?

A
  1. Neurotransmitter binds to a metabotropic receptor.
  2. Activated g proteins transmit the message intracellularly.
  3. Some ion channels are gated (directly or indirectly) by activated g proteins.
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11
Q

G protein signaling cascades can affect multiple downstream processes. What can those be?

A
  1. Opening g protein-gated ion channels
  2. Changes in gene transcription
  3. Secretion of substances from the cell
  4. Really anything the cell wants.
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12
Q

Where can synapses form?

A
  1. Between axon terminals
  2. On dendrites (dendritic shafts)
  3. On dendritic spines
  4. On the soma (cell body)
  5. On other axon terminals (axoaxonic synapses)
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13
Q

What do axoaxonic synapses regulate?

A

They regulate the amount of neurotransmitter that the second neuron will release when it has an action potential.

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14
Q

What is presynaptic inhibition with axoaxonic synapses?

A

Axoaxonic synapse can hyperpolarize the axon terminal of the downstream neuron (in red), so that its voltage-gated calcium channels will not open at all or for very long when an action potential arrives. The net effect is to reduce neurotransmitter release from the red cell when it has an action potential.

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15
Q

What is presynaptic facilitation with axoaxonic synapses?

A

Axoaxonic synapse can depolarize the axon terminal of the downstream neuron, so that its voltage-gated calcium channels are more likely to open when an action potential arrives. The net effect is to increase neurotransmitter release from the downstream
axon terminal when it has an action potential.

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16
Q

What is an autoreceptor?

A

A receptor located on the presynaptic membrane that gets activated when the cell releases its own neurotransmitter. Autoreceptors are gated by the neurotransmitter that the cell releases. Autoreceptors are generally metabotropic and inhibitory. They are the main source of presynaptic inhibition.

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17
Q

What is a postsynaptic receptor?

A

A receptor located on the receiving neuron, the one that is not releasing the neurotransmitter.

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18
Q

What is the neuraxis?

A

An imaginary line that runs along the length of the CNS

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19
Q

What do anterior, posterior, superior, and inferior respectively mean?

A

In front, behind, above, below

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20
Q

What do rostral, caudal, dorsal, and ventral respectively mean?

A

Towards the beak, towards the tail, towards the back, and towards the belly

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21
Q

What do lateral and medial resepectively mean?

A

Away form the midline, toward the midline

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22
Q

What do contralateral and ipsilateral respectively mean?

A

-Structures on opposite side of the body (ex: motor cortex)
-Structures on same side of body (ex: taste and smell)

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23
Q

What do superficial and deep respectively mean?

A

-Located close to the surface, close to the exterior of the animal.
-Located far away from the surface, deep in the interior of the animal.

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24
Q

What do proximal and distal respectively mean?

A

Nearby, far away

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25
Q

What does brain nuclei mean?

A

In the brain, the word nuclei means a collection of neurons that are clustered together that all work together to serve some function.

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26
Q

What are the 2 parts of the nervous system?

A

The central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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27
Q

What does the central nervous system include?

A

Everything in the brain and spinal cord.

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28
Q

What does the peripheral nervous system include?

A

Any part of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord, including the nerves attached to the brain and spinal cord.

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29
Q

What is an example that the distinction between the CNS and the PNS is real?

A

In the CNS, myelin is created by oligodendrocytes. In the PNS, myelin is created by Schwann cells.

30
Q

What is the blood-brain barrier?

A

A semipermeable barrier between the blood and the brain.
If a blue dye is injected into an animal’s bloodstream, all tissues except the brain and spinal cord will be tinted blue.

31
Q

The blood plasma that leaks out of the blood vessels in the body becomes _____.

A

lymph, the extracellular fluid of the body.

32
Q

What does lymph do?

A

Lymph is the extracellular fluid of the body that leaks out of the blood vessels. It flows around cells providing nutrients and collecting waste, and is collected into lymph vessels and brought to lymph nodes/lymph organs. These structures detect and destroy any invading organisms or foreign particles. Lymph ends up returning to the blood vessels to start the process again.

33
Q

Does the CNS participate in the lymphatic system?

A

No, because of the blood-brain barrier. The blood capillaries that pass through the brain and spinal cord do not have gaps in them.

34
Q

What is the name of the extracellular solution of the brain?

A

The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

35
Q

What are the 3 types of meninges?

A
  1. The dura matter
  2. The arachnoid membrane
  3. The pia matter
36
Q

What are meninges?

A

Tough, protective connective tissues that surround the brain.

37
Q

What is the dura matter?

A

The outer layer of the meninges. It is thick, tough, unstretchable tissue.

38
Q

What is the arachnoid membrane?

A

The middle layer of the meninges. It is soft and spongy and has a web-like appearance.

39
Q

What is the pia matter?

A

The layer of the meninges that sits closer to the brain. It has blood vessels in it.

40
Q

What is the subarachnoid space?

A

The space between the arachnoid membrane and the pia matter. It is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

41
Q

What is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) made by?

A

Chloroid plexus, a tissue that is found in each of the brain ventricles.

42
Q

CSF is made _____, and is half replaced every __ hours (the half-life). It exits the ventricles and flows around the brain and spinal cord (in the subarachnoid space) before it is absorbed into the blood supply.

A

continuously, 3

43
Q

What is an interneuron?

A

A CNS neuron whose axons stay local (it only makes synapses on nearby neurons)

44
Q

What is a projection neuron?

A

A neuron in the CNS that has an axon that goes outside the area where its soma is located.

45
Q

A neuron entirely located in the CNS is technically called an _____.

A

interneuron

46
Q

What does the CNS include?

A

Everything in the brain and spinal cord, interneurons, projection neurons

47
Q

What does the PNS include?

A

Any part of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord, including the axons of motor neurons (efferent fibers) and the axons of sensory neurons (afferent fibers).

48
Q

What are efferent fibers?

A

Fibers that bring information away form the CNS. The outputs.

49
Q

What do motor neurons control?

A

Muscle contraction and gland secretion

50
Q

Where is the soma of motor neurons located?

A

Within the spinal cord (the CNS).

51
Q

What are afferent fibers?

A

Fibers that bring information towards the CNS. The inputs.

52
Q

What do sensory neurons detect?

A

they detect changes in the external and internal environment. They send this information to the CNS.

53
Q

How do the brain and spinal cord communicate with the rest of the body?

A

With cranial nerves and spinal nerves. These nerves are part of the PNS, which conveys sensory information to the CNS and conveys messages from the CNS to the body’s muscles and glands.

54
Q

How many pairs of spinal nerve attach to the spinal cord?

A

31 pairs, about 1 pair for each vertebrae.

55
Q

How many pairs of cranial nerves attach to the ventral surface of the brain?

A

12 pairs

56
Q

All the cranial nerves except the __ serve sensory and motor functions of the head and neck region.

A

10th

57
Q

How do we also call the 10th cranial nerve ?

A

The vagus (“wandering”) nerve because its branches wander throughout thoracic and abdominal cavities.

58
Q

What does the 10th cranial nerve regulate?

A

Functions of the heart, lungs, upper digestive track, and other organs in that area.

59
Q

What is the spinal cord and its function?

A

A long, conical structure, approximately as thick as an adult’s little finger. Its principal function is to distribute motor fibers to the effector organs of the body (glands and muscles) and to collect somatosensory information to be passed on to the brain. It has a certain degree of autonomy from the brain; various reflexive control circuits are located there.

60
Q

What is the somatic nervous system?

A

A part of the PNS that controls skeletal muscle movements and processes sensory information that relates to the outside world. In general, the somatic system senses and interacts with the external environment.

61
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system (ANS)

A

A part of the PNS concerned with sensation and regulation of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands. In general, the ANS interacts with the body’s internal environment.
The efferent ANS consists of two anatomically separate systems: the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division.

62
Q

What is the function of the afferent and efferent nerves of the somatic nervous system?

A

Afferent nerves: Carry sensory signals from eyes, ears, skin, etc, to the CNS.
Efferent nerves: Carry motor signals from the CNS to skeletal muscles.

63
Q

What is the function of the afferent and efferent nerves of the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?

A

Afferent nerves: Carry sensory signals from internal organs to the CNS.
Efferent nerves: Carry motor signals from the CNS to internal organs.

64
Q

What are the 2 divisions of the ANS efferent branch?

A

The sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division.

65
Q

What is the sympathetic division?

A

Part of efferent autonomic nervous system that primes the body for action, particularly in life threatening situations (e.g., it mediates the flight-fight-freeze response when animals are threatened).
Note that it is always active to some extent, as it regulates heart rate, blood flow, and the activity of almost every organ in the body. But when acutely stimulated, it shunts blood away from the organs that are not necessary for immediate survival and increases blood flow to the organs involved in intense physical activity.

66
Q

What is the parasympathetic division?

A

Part of efferent autonomic nervous system that supports activities that occur when the body is in a relaxed state and all is well. It is generally involved with increasing the body’s energy stores (i.e., digestion). Its functions also include sexual arousal, defecation, urination, and salvation. For simplicity, people often say the parasympathetic system is involved in “feed and breed” and “rest and digest” activities.

66
Q

What is the parasympathetic division?

A

Part of efferent autonomic nervous system that supports activities that occur when the body is in a relaxed state and all is well. It is generally involved with increasing the body’s energy stores (i.e., digestion). Its functions also include sexual arousal, defecation, urination, and salvation. For simplicity, people often say the parasympathetic system is involved in “feed and breed” and “rest and digest” activities.

67
Q

What is the medulla oblongata and its function?

A

The most caudal part of the brain stem. It contains a collection of brain nuclei that regulate different autonomic (involuntary) functions, such as heart rate and blood flow, breathing, vomiting, sneezing, etc. Area postrema is a famous part of the medulla, as the blood–brain barrier is noticeably weak here. Poisons detected here can initiate vomiting. The medulla also contains part of the reticular formation, which plays an important role in sleep and arousal.

68
Q

What is the pons and its function?

A

The pons is a large bulge in the brain stem that relays information between the cerebrum and cerebellum. It also contains part of the reticular formation as well as several cranial nerve nuclei, which participate in hearing, balance, taste, and sensations and movements of the face.

69
Q

What are the 3 principal structures that are part of the hindbrain?

A

The cerebellum, the pons, and the medulla oblongata

70
Q

What is the cerebellum and its function?

A

One the surface of the cerebellum is the cerebellar cortex, a continuous thin layer of tissue tightly folded in the style of an accordion. This surrounds a collection of deep cerebellar nuclei, which provide the output fibers. The cerebellum plays an important role in motor control.
The cerebellum does not initiate movement, but it contributes to its coordination, precision, and accurate timing.
It integrates sensory information and motor commands to exert a coordinating and smoothing effect on movement (and cognition). It plays an important role in motor learning, particularly when parts of the body grow and change (which necessitate adjustments in sensorimotor integration).

71
Q

What does cerebellar damage result in?

A

Jerky, poorly coordinated, exaggerated movements. Extensive cerebellar damage makes it impossible even to stand.

PSYC 211 (8 decks)

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