Kuhn and Paradigms

Question 1

What is the name of the book that Thomas Kuhn published in 1962?

Answer 1

“The Structure of Scientific Revolutions” by Thomas Kuhn (1962)

Question 2

Where was Thomas Kuhn’s book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions published?

Answer 2

The book “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions” was published as a monograph in the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science.

Question 3

Thomas Kuhn’s book “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions” was written in response to …?

Answer 3

The book was written in response to Karl Popper.

Question 4

The work of Thomas Kuhn represented two types of shift in the scientific practice. Which two?

Answer 4

1. The shift from a normative belief (what scientists ought to do in order to do science) to a descriptive belief (what scientists actually do).
2. Shift from logical considerations towards historical and sociological considerations.

Question 5

What is the current view of progress in science that Thomas Kuhn criticises?

Answer 5

• Linear increase of knowledge.
• Scientific progress is a “development-by-accumulation” of accepted facts and theories.
• A steady progress in which new knowledge and methods contribute to a gradually growing body of knowledge.

Question 6

What does incommensurability mean?

Answer 6

Incommensurability is the concept whereby knowledge is impossible to measure and compare because there is no common measurement of knowledge, e.g. knowledge proposed by Einstein, Aristotle and Newton.

Question 7

What does Kuhn’s argument of incommensurability imply?

Answer 7

Kuhn criticises the current view of progress in science because they compare the different theories and paradigms and build knowledge upon each other. Kuhn argues that this is not possible because of incommensurability.

Question 8

Mention Kuhn’s 5 steps in scientific progress.

Answer 8

1. Immature science
2. Normal science
3. Crisis
4. Revolution
5. Resolution

Question 9

According to Kuhn, what is scientific progress a product of?

Answer 9

Revolution!

Question 10

What type of model is Thomas Kuhn’s model of scientific progress?

Answer 10

• Non-linear model - progress of science emerges from a set of changing intellectual circumstances and possibilities, e.g. operations, measurements, strategies, terminology etc.
• Episodic model - periods of ‘normal science’ is interrupted by periods of revolutionary science.

Question 11

Mention examples of immature science.

Answer 11

Economics, cognitive and social sciences e.g. psychology and sociology.

Question 12

Mention examples of immature science.

Answer 12

Economics, cognitive and social sciences e.g. psychology and sociology.

Question 13

Mention examples of mature sciences.

Answer 13

Chemistry, geology and physics.

Question 14

What are the characteristics of immature sciences?

Answer 14

• Accumulation of effects to be explained.

- Lack of standard theories that are agreed upon, i.e. observations will be understood differently.

Question 15

What are the characteristics of mature sciences?

Answer 15

• Established paradigms
• Identifiable scientific achievements.
• Able to guide scientists in the field.

Question 16

How does Kuhn define normal science?

Answer 16

Normal science is:

• Research based on past scientific achievements.
• Research acknowledged by the scientific community.
• Research that guides further practice.

Question 17

Why do crises arise according to Kuhn?

Answer 17

• Running out of puzzles to solve.
• The current paradigm doesn’t work on many of the interesting problems anymore.
• Technological advances foster new ways of thinking.

Question 18

What are the characteristics of paradigms?

Answer 18

• Paradigms emerge from its competitors because it is seen as the best explanation of the phenomena.
• A ruling paradigm states the accepted theory of the day.
• However, not guaranteed the paradigm will explain all of the relevant facts.

Question 19

Mention properties of a paradigm.

Answer 19

Metaphysical principless, fundamental laws, theoretical assumptions, standards for applying its laws and methodologies, the instruments and techniques for using them and criteria for suitable scientific explanations.

Question 20

Why is Kuhn’s model of scientific progress provocative at the time?

Answer 20

1. Goes against the linear model of scientific knowledge.
2. Makes knowledge relative - one model can be as good as the other if it has many followers. Removes the talk of logic/reasoning.
3. Scientists defend the idea that they know the nature of the world. Unlikely to tolerate anomalies, i.e. observations that do not fit with the current paradigm. They suppress the anomalies that Kuhn believes are responsible for scientific progress.

Question 21

What is Kuhn’s opinion on neutral observations?

Answer 21

Kuhn states there is no such thing as a neutral observation (e.g. blue vs. gold dress). You are only able to have one interpretation at a time, i.e. if the gold interpretation wins, then it is gold everywhere. It is the same with paradigms since they are incommensurable.

Question 22

What is necessary for a theory to be verified or falsified?

Answer 22

A theory, T1, cannot be verified or falsified without considering the grander network of theories (T1, T2, …, Tn) that T1 is part of, i.e. taking the historical context into consideration.

Question 23

What are the characteristics of the textbooks that Kuhn criticises?

Answer 23

• The boks contain various scientific achievements.
• They depict scientific development as a steady progress in which new knowledge and methods contribute to a gradually growing body of knowledge (i.e. development-by-accumulation).
• Science students train by reading various textbooks.

Question 24

Why does Kuhn criticise the current textbooks?

Answer 24

Kuhn argues that the textbooks are missing the explanations of how the various discoveries are made and the thinking behind the discoveries, i.e. the historical context.

Question 25

What is Kuhn’s thesis about paradigms?

Answer 25

The paradigm and its rules and methods are not absolute.
The paradigm decides what is to be studied. E.g. the paradigm behaviourism decided that you were not to study the mental processes but only focus purely on observable behaviour.