Kreeft Intro Chapter part one

Question 1

what is logic?

Answer 1

process of thinking by which we derive conclusions from evidence as we move from one proposition to the next

Question 2

Logic is the process of thinking —— ——- —– —— —— from evidence as we move from one proposition to the next

Answer 2

by which we derive conclusions

Question 3

Logic is the process of ——- ——– ——— ——– ——- —— —— —— as we move from one proposition to the next

Answer 3

thinking by which we derive conclusions from evidence

Question 4

describe formal logic.

Answer 4

-uses deductive logic
-studies the form of arguments
-uses symbols and notation

Question 5

formal logic studies the —— of arguments

Answer 5

form

Question 6

formal logic uses —– and ——-

Answer 6

symbols
notation

Question 7

formal logic uses —-
logic-

Answer 7

deductive

Question 8

informal logic uses —- logic

Answer 8

inductive

Question 9

informal logic studies

Answer 9

fallacies

Question 10

in formal logic evaluates the ——

Answer 10

content of ordinary language arguments

Question 11

what kind of logic does formal logic use?
What kind of logic does informal logic use?

Answer 11

-deductive logic
-i inductive logic

Question 12

what does formal logic study? What does informal logic study?

Answer 12

formal logic studies the form of arguments

Informal logic studies fallacies

Question 13

formal logic uses —- and —–

Answer 13

symbols
notation

Question 14

what does informal logic evaluate?

Answer 14

content of ordinary language arguments

Question 15

what is a syllogism?

Answer 15

-A syllogism is a form of deductive argument where the conclusion follows from the truth of two (or more) premises

Question 16

the fundamental structure of all reasoning involves movement of the mind from —— to ——( text page 26)

Answer 16

from premises to a conclusion

Question 17

what is a premise?

( text page 26)

Answer 17

reasons or evidence for truth of the conclusion that you want your listener to reach

Question 18

what is conclusion?
( text page 26)

Answer 18

concept, statement, or idea that you are trying to prove to be true

Question 19

what are the two basic kinds of reasoning?

( text page 26)

Answer 19

inductive and deductive

Question 20

A deductive argument moves from the general to the specific. How is this different from inductive arguments?

( text page 26)

Answer 20

An inductive argument does the opposite thing: it moves from a specific thing to something that is more general.

Question 21

look at the following statements:
I am mortal. You are mortal. He and she is mortal. Therefore, all human beings are mortal.
What kind of reasoning is this?why?

( text page 26)

Answer 21

inductive reasoning

It’s inductive reasoning because the first three statements are specific; the last statement is very general. Referring to an individual person as mortal is much more specific compared to referring to all human beings as a whole, which is much more general.

Question 22

look at the following statement:
all men are mortal, which means I am mortal.
What kind of reasoning is this? And why?

( text page 26)

Answer 22

deductive reasoning
deductive reasoning starts with a universal premise which is of very broad statement, and moves to something that is much more specific or particular statement representing the conclusion you want your listener to reach

'’all men are mortal’’ - is a very broad, general, universal premise

'’I am mortal’’ - is a much more specific, particular, narrow statement and is the conclusion that you want your reader to reach
.

Question 23

——————— reasoning yields only probability, not certainty

( text page 26)

Answer 23

inductive

Question 24

—————- reasoning, when correct, yields certainty

( text page 26)

Answer 24

deductive

Question 25

a deductive argument succeeds in proving its conclusion to be true if and only if three conditions are met. What are these three conditions?

( text page 26)

Answer 25

1. All terms must be clear and unambiguous. If any term could be ambiguous, you have to clearly define it. Otherwise, the two people who hear the term might have a different definition in their mind of this ambiguous term. This means they will think they’re talking about the same thing, but they’re really not, because they each define the ambiguous term differently.
2. all premises of your deductive argument must be true.

Example of an invalid conclusion resulting from a false premise:
All Martians are infallible. I am a Martian. Therefore, I am infallible.

3. the argument must be logically valid. In other words, the conclusion must follow from the premises. This is important because if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true.

Question 26

what is a declarative sentence?

Answer 26

A “declarative sentence” in logic is a sentence that states a fact or assertion.

In logic, a declarative sentence can be definitively identified as either true or false, and is considered a “statement” in the field of logic; essentially, it is a sentence that expresses a proposition with a clear truth value of either true or false.
(this definition is obtained from the web, because the book didn’t really give a great definition of a declarative sentence on page 27 prior to using the phrase declarative sentence )

Question 27

what is the defining characteristic of a declarative sentence?

Answer 27

The defining characteristic is that a declarative sentence can be assigned a truth value, either “true” or “false”

(Internet definition)

Question 28

in logic, what is a proposition?

Answer 28

In logic, a proposition is a statement that is either true or false. A proposition is a statement that can be either true or false; it must be one or the other, and it cannot be both.

(Internet definition)

Question 29

in logic, what is a term?

( text p. 27)

Answer 29

a term in logic is the subject or predicate of a proposition

remember that in logic, a proposition is a statement that can be either true or false; it must be one or the other, and it cannot be both.

Question 30

in logic, terms are either ——– or —————

( text p. 27)

Answer 30

terms are either clear or unclear
terms cannot be described as true or false; instead, a proposition is what is described as true or false

Question 31

look at the proposition “all men are mortal.” remember that in logic, a proposition is a statement that can be either true or false; it must be one or the other, and it cannot be both. what is the term?

( text p. 27)

Answer 31

the term is mortal

the term is the subject or predicate of a proposition. For purposes of logic, the term is probably not going to be the subject or predicate of the sentence in which the term appears; instead, the term will be the subject of the preposition.

a term is described as clear or unclear; the term cannot be described as true or false
in this case, the term is mortal, a word which is neither true nor false; instead, it’s a characteristic attributed to anything that can die
the term mortal is clear, as it has a standard meaning

Question 32

propositions are declarative sentences; they are described as either —– or ——–

( text p. 27)

Answer 32

true or false

A “declarative sentence” in logic is a sentence that states a fact or assertion.

In logic, a declarative sentence can be definitively identified as either true or false,. However, there is no one simple, infallible way of telling whether any proposition is true or false.

Question 33

the laws of logic don’t tell us infallibly whether an argument is true or false. Instead, they tell us whether an argument is —— or ——–.

Answer 33

valid or invalid

Question 34

what makes a deductive argument logically valid (meaning valid according to laws of logic) ?

( text p. 27)

Answer 34

its conclusion necessarily follows from its premises

Question 35

what makes a deductive argument logically invalid?

( text p. 27)

Answer 35

it’s conclusion does not follow from its premises

Question 36

Arguments are made up of —————————- .

( text p. 27) and logic propositions statement to see the true

Answer 36

propositions

In logic, a proposition is a statement that is either true or false.). X

Question 37

the text on page 27 says arguments are made up of propositions ( premises and a conclusion).

Answer 37

premises and a conclusion
A premise in logic is a statement or idea that serves as the basis for an argument and is used to support a conclusion.

The conclusion is the statement that is being argued for, and the premises are the statements that support the conclusion.
patient’s

An argument is made up of a set of premises and a conclusion. The conclusion is the statement that is being argued for, and the premises are the statements that support the conclusion.

Question 38

proposition versus premise-what’s the difference between the two?
( text p. 27)

Answer 38

In logic, while a “proposition” is simply a statement that can be true or false, a “premise” is a specific type of proposition that is used as evidence to support a conclusion within an argument; so, while all premises are propositions, not all propositions are premises

Question 39

arguments are made up of ———–
( text p. 27)

Answer 39

propositions

Question 40

propositions are made up of

( text p. 27)

Answer 40

terms

Question 41

terms are either ——— or ——————

( text p. 27)

Answer 41

clear or unclear

Question 42

propositions, whether they are premises or the conclusions, are either ———— or ————————–

( text p. 27)

Answer 42

true or false

Question 43

arguments are either logically —————- or ————————–

( text p. 27)

Answer 43

valid or invalid

Question 44

what three questions must be true in order for the conclusion of your deductive argument to be true ?

( text p. 27)

Answer 44

terms are all clear and unambiguous
premises all are true
reasoning is all logically valid/no logical fallacy is in the argument which would cause the conclusion to not necessarily follow from the premises

Question 45

to disagree with any particular conclusion of a deductive argument, but must you show?

( text p. 27)

Answer 45

so at least one of the terms used is ambiguous
a false premise is present
a logical fallacy exists in the argument such that the conclusion does not necessarily follow from the premises

this applies only to deductive arguments;Inductive arguments do not claim certainty

Question 46

logic is both a science and art. The basis for logic is found in two facts. Name them.

( text p. 28)

Answer 46

-human beings think

-Thought has a structure

Question 47

from the viewpoint of logic, there are three kinds of thoughts, also know as three acts of the mind. Name these three kinds of thoughts.

( text p. 28)

Answer 47

simple apprehension
judging
reasoning

Question 48

what is simple apprehension?

(text page 28)

Answer 48

it means conceiving, understanding or comprehending one single object of thought, one concept

Example: is the act of understanding a single idea, such as mortal, man, triangle, triangle with unequal angles, etc.

It’s the act of simply understanding and thinking about one specific thought or idea

simple apprehension is the simplest of the three types of thoughts, because it involves Considering only one idea, thought, or concept

Question 49

what is it judging?

(text page 28)

Answer 49

Judging is the act of relating to concepts to each other by making one term to be the predicate, the other term is made into the subject, and they are used in a way that shows that something is either being affirmed or denied

examples of statements in which there is a judging:
-man is mortal

-Man is not a triangle

judgment is more complex than simple apprehension because it requires you to consider, or perform simple apprehension of, two different concepts or ideas; after considering these two different concepts or ideas, even make some type of judgment, such as something is true or something is not true

Question 50

what is reasoning?

(text page 28)

Answer 50

-process in which first, two or more judgments( the premises or assumptions) are used to argue that another entity ( the conclusion) must be true

example: all men are mortal, and I am a man; therefore, I am mortal

Question 51

what mental products are produced in the mind by the three acts of the mind?

(text page 28)

Answer 51

concepts-the products of conceiving
judgments-the products of judging
arguments-the products of reasoning, or arguing

is not too important to distinguish between the acts in their objects

What’s crucial is to distinguish the three acts and the three objects

Question 52

There are three important mental entities in logic: concepts, judgments, and arguments. In logic, how are these three mental entities expressed ?

Answer 52

mental entity expression in logic

concept term

judgment proposition

argument argument (the most usable form is the syllogism)

syllogism: A syllogism is a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on two propositions that are asserted or assumed

Syllogisms are a form of deductive reasoning that typically starts with a major premise about a general topic. Next, it adds a minor premise about a particular thing. These two premises work to conclude a property of the particular thing.

Question 53

There are three important mental entities in logic: concepts, judgments, and arguments. how are these concepts expressed in language?

Answer 53

mental entity expression in language
Concept words or phrases (less than a complete
)sentence

Judgment declarative sentences

Argument paragraphs, or at least two or more declarative
sentences connected by a word like ‘therefore’,
which indicates an argument

Question 54

let’s work through the example from page 29 showing the three mental entities being expressed in logic.

The three mental entities are concepts, judgments, and arguments.

Answer 54

mental entity expression in logic
concept term: man

judgment proposition: Socrates is a man

argument argument( syllogism); all men are mortal, and Socrates is a man, therefore Socrates is a mortal.

Question 55

let’s work through the example from page 29 showing the three mental entities being expressed in language.

The three mental entities are concepts, judgments, and arguments.

Answer 55

Concept words or phrases man
(less than a complete
sentence)

Judgment declarative sentences Socrates is a man

Argument paragraphs, or at least All men are mortal.
two or more declarative Socrates is a man.
sentences connected by a therefore, Socrates is
word like ‘therefore’, mortal.
which indicates an argument

Question 56

logic deals only with declarative sentences. What are declarative sentences?

Answer 56

declarative sentences

Declarative sentences claim to state a truth.

Question 57

what are the sentence types with which logic does not deal?

Answer 57

1.interrogative sentences-these are sentences that ask questions, such as what time is it?

2.mperative sentences-these are sentences that are commands are requests. Examples of imperative sentences:

Please pass the mustard.
Close the door.

3.exclamatory sentences- the sentences expressed strong emotions
ex; wow! What a hit!

4.performative sentences-speaker is stating that they are conferring some sort of status on another person
ex; I dub thee knight.

non-declarative sentences are not propositions.

Question 58

how are logic and language different?

Answer 58

logic is something that is discovered. There is only one logic. It is objective coming universal, and unchangeable in its basic laws or principles.

Language is something that humans make up. There many different languages. Languages are different in place and time. For example, 14th century English that was spoken in England is different from the English that is spoken in Jamaica, Australia, or the United States in 2024. Language is not universal. Language that is spoken in one country is not necessarily spoken in a different country.