Knowledge Flashcards
a Polish philosopher and historian of ideas. He is best known for his critical analyses of Marxist thought, such as in his three-volume history of Marxist philosophy Main Currents of Marxism (1976)
Leszek Kołakowski (1927 – 2009)
He became one of Marxism’s greatest intellectual critics.
لشک کولاکوفسکی
a German philosopher who is widely regarded as one of the most important philosophers of the 20th century. He is best known for contributions to phenomenology, hermeneutics, and existentialism.
Martin Heidegger
difficult to understand; obscure
abstruse
A Heidegger of German idealist philosophy, preoccupied with abstruse but fundamental questions of time, death, and the underlying anxiety or Angst of human living …
philosophy of consciousness
Phenomenology
(from Greek phainómenon “that which appears” and lógos “study”)
پدیدارشناسی
the philosophical inquiry into how we make interpretations
HERMENEUTICS
the way in which someone explains or understands an event, information, someone’s actions etc
interpretation
Heidegger has been interpreted more positively…. contributor to modern HERMENEUTICS (the philosophical inquiry into how we make interpretations), crucial to the key hermeneutic theorist, Hans-Georg Gadamer.
was a leading Continental philosopher of the twentieth century. His importance lies in his development of hermeneutic philosophy.
Hans-Georg Gadamer
the key hermeneutic theorist, Hans-Georg Gadamer.
the belief in philosophy that people are responsible for their own actions and experiences, and that the world has no meaning
existentialism
In a very broad sense, there are six major themes philosophy touches on:
- Metaphysics: The study of the universe and reality
- Logic: How to create a valid argument
- Epistemology: The study of knowledge and how we acquire knowledge
- Aesthetics: The study of art and beauty
- Politics: The study of political rights, government, and the role of citizens
- Ethics: The study of morality and how one should live his life
the basic material of the universe (a primary principle)/
a first principle: a in early Greek philosophy : a substance or primal element.
archê /ˈɑːrki/
Ancient Greek: ἀρχή
a Greek word with primary senses “beginning”, “origin” or “source of action” from the beginning, the original argument), and later “first principle” or “element”…the basic material of the universe
archetype
\archespore
One of the most important pre-Socratic philosophers, claimed the archê, or the single element, was water.
“The First Western Philosopher”
Thales (624–546 B.C.E)
Thales determined that water could experience principles of change like evaporation and condensation, therefore allowing for it to be gaseous or solid. He also knew that water was responsible for moisture (which heat was generated from) and nourishment. Thales even believed the earth floated on water.
One of the most important pre-Socratic philosophers claimed the archê, the single element was actually an undefined, unlimited, and indefinite substance, known as apeiron.
Anaximander (610–546 B.C.E)
Anaximander is known for being the first philosopher that we know of to have left writings of his work.
an important pre-Socratic philosopher of the Milesian school who believed the archê, the single element was air
Anaximenes (585–528 B.C.E)
According to Anaximenes, air is everywhere and has the ability to undergo processes and become transformed into other things, such as water, clouds, wind, fire, and even the earth.
Philosopher and mathematician believed that the basis of all reality was mathematical relations and that mathematics governed everything.
Pythagoras (570–497 B.C.E)
o Pythagoras, numbers were sacred, and with the use of mathematics, everything could be measured and predicted. The impact and image of Pythagoras was astounding. His school was cult-like, with followers listening to his every word … and even his strange rules, which covered anything from what and what not to eat, how to dress, and even how to urinate. Pythagoras philosophized on many areas, and his students believed that his teachings were the prophecies of the gods.
an Ancient Greek, pre-Socratic, philosopher claimed the archê, the single element was fire and that everything was a manifestation of fire.
Heraclitus of Ephesus (535–475 B.C.E).
Heraclitus believed that everything in nature is constantly changing, or in a state of flux. He is perhaps most famous for his notion that one cannot step in the same river twice. Heraclitus believed that the single element was fire and that everything was a manifestation of fire.
one of the most important Pre-Socratic philosophers, known for his critique of religion and mythology
Xenophanes (570–475 B.C.E)
He attacked the notion that the gods were anthropomorphic (or took a human form). Xenophanes believed there was one god that, while it did not physically move, had the ability to hear, see, and think, and controlled the world with his thoughts.
a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. He has been considered the founder of metaphysics or ontology and has influenced the whole history of Western philosophy.
Parmenides (510–440 B.C.E)
Parmenides had an incredible impact on Plato and all of Western philosophy. His work led the school of Elea to become the first movement to use pure reason as the only criterion for finding truth.
a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who devoted his time to creating arguments (known as paradoxes)
Zeno of Elea (490–430 B.C.E)
In Zeno’s most famous paradoxes, the paradoxes of motion
Parmenides and Zeno believed that reality existed as one thing, and that things like plurality and motion were nothing more than illusions. Though the work of Zeno would later be disproved, his paradoxes still raise important questions, challenges, and inspirations for philosophers, physicists, and mathematicians.
Greek philosopher claimed distinguished between is and seems.
Melissus of Samos (around 440 B.C.E)
When a thing is X, according to Melissus of Samos, it has to always be X (and never not X). Therefore, according to this idea, when something is cold, it can never stop being cold. But since this is not the case, and properties are not retained indefinitely, nothing (except for the Parmenidean Real, reality existing as one continuous, unchanging thing) actually ever is; rather, it seems.
reported in some ancient sources to have been a philosopher who was the earliest Greek to develop the theory of atomism
Leucippus (5th century BCE)
believed that every physical object is made up of atoms and void (empty space that atoms move in) that are arranged in different ways. This idea is not too far from the concepts of atoms that we know today. This school believed that atoms were incredibly small particles (so small that they could not be cut in half) that differed in size, shape, motion, arrangement, and position, and that when put together, these atoms created what is seen in the visible world.
an Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher primarily remembered today for his formulation of an atomic theory of the universe
Democritus (460–370 B.C.E)
believed that every physical object is made up of atoms and void (empty space that atoms move in) that are arranged in different ways. This idea is not too far from the concepts of atoms that we know today. This school believed that atoms were incredibly small particles (so small that they could not be cut in half) that differed in size, shape, motion, arrangement, and position, and that when put together, these atoms created what is seen in the visible world.
a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of existence
ontology
from Greek ōn, ont- ‘being’ + -logy.
a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as a founder of Western philosophy and the first moral philosopher of the Western ethical tradition of thought.
SOCRATES (469–399 B.C.)
The game-changer
a logical refutation.
the Socratic method of eliciting truth by question and answer, especially as used to refute an argument.
elenchus
Socrates used the elenchus, a method in which he would refute the claims of the other person.
disprove, to prove that something is wrong
refute
an Athenian philosopher during the Classical period in Ancient Greece, founder of the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world.
PLATO (429–347 B.C.)
One of the founders of Western philosophy
PLATO’S CAVE: Knowledge versus the senses
an argument or set of reasons that you put forward to oppose an idea or theory
counterargument
many of Plato’s dialogues do not reach a concise conclusion. Those that do, however, allow for possible counterarguments and doubts.
استدلالهای متقابل
a story, play, picture, etc. in which each character or event is a symbol representing an idea or a quality, such as truth, evil, death, etc.; the use of such symbols
Allegory
The Allegory of the Cave reads as a conversation between Socrates and Plato’s brother, Glaucon. In the dialogue, Socrates asks Glaucon to imagine a world where an illusion is perceived as reality.
an allegory presented by the Greek philosopher Plato in his work Republic (514a–520a)
The Allegory of the cave, or Plato’s Cave
The main theme of Plato’s Allegory of the Cave in the Republic is that human perception cannot derive true knowledge, and instead, real knowledge can only come via philosophical reasoning
a philosophical theory, concept, or world-view, attributed to Plato, that the physical world is not as real or true as timeless, absolute, unchangeable ideas.
The theory of Forms
Plato’s theory of Forms is what allows people to finally turn around and discover the truth. In essence, knowledge gained through the senses and perception is not knowledge at all, but opinion. It is only through philosophical reasoning that one is able to pursue knowledge.
the notion that philosophy should focus on the experience of human existence in this world.
existentialism
“The individual and the human experience”
In other words, existentialism seeks out the meaning of life and finding oneself.
هستی گرایی، وجود گرایی
Danish theologian, philosopher, poet, social critic, and religious author who is widely considered to be the first existentialist philosopher
Søren Kierkegaard (1813_1855)
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
political philosophy
British philosopher, logician, and social critic. As an academic, he worked in philosophy, mathematics, and logic.
Bertrand Russell (1872-1970)
an English philosopher and writer. He began his career as a writer on mathematics and logic, and his best-known early book is Principia Mathematica (1910-13). He also taught philosophy, and in 1912-13 Ludwig Wittgenstein was one of his students at Cambridge University. In 1931 he became the 3rd Earl Russell. Among his other works are popular books on philosophy, education and social issues, and his History of Western Philosophy (1945) was particularly successful. He won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1950. In the later years of his life he was famous for his strong political opinions. He became the first president of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament in 1958.
the formal study of the principles of art and beauty
aesthetics
study of value, such as ethics and aestherics
axiology
The main difference between axiology and ethics is that axiology is the study of values whereas ethics is the study of moral principles. Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with moral concepts like right and wrong, virtue and vice as well as good and evil.
Greek axios, “worthy”; logos, “science”
stating your opinions in a strong way and not accepting anyone else’s opinions
dogmatism
Greek dogma (genitive dogmatos) “opinion, tenet,”
تعصب مذهبی، خشک اندیشی، تعصب، جزمیت
Quote by?
“philosophy begins in wonder”
Socrates
Plato writes, quoting Socrates, “Wonder is the feeling of a philosopher, and philosophy begins in wonder.”
“Socrates said that “philosophy begins in wonder.” In Western civilization, philosophy began when a group of Greek sages in the Aegean seaport of Miletus sought to satisfy their sense of wonder by asking new kinds of questions. Instead of relying on mythology and supernatural forces to explain nature, these thinkers began to use reason and observation. This marked the beginning of science as well as philosophy.”
Excerpt From
The Philosophy Book: From the Vedas to the New Atheists, 250 Milestones in the History of Philosophy
Gregory Bassham
This material may be protected by copyright.
skepticism
dogma
Quote by who?
“it is not possible to step twice into the same river”
Heraclitus
any justification of a belief that appeals only to the belief’s origin or genesis instead of to its justification.
هر گونه توجیه یک باور که به جای دلیل اوری آن، فقط به منشأ یا پیدایش آن باور متوسل می شود.
genetic account
a good reason or explanation for something
justification
دلیل اوری/ دلیل، فرنود
serving as justification or capable of justifying; vindicatory
justificatory
Give me reason why I -and everyone else –ought to hold a belief. That’s what philosophers are interested in: the justificatory account of a belief.
توجیهی
“ A ………… of an *argument is one of the propositions from which together the conclusion is derived.
Excerpt From
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy
Simon Blackburn
premise (premiss)
صغری یا کبری, مقدمه، فرض (مفروضات)، قضیه
a process of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from a set of premises
*the oxford dictionary of philosophy
deduction
(منطق) استدلال قیاسی، استنتاج (استدلال از کل به جز یا رسیدن
قیاس، وضع، استنتاج،/
an argument that is intended to provide support for its conclusion such that if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true.
deductive argument
استدلال استنتاجی، استدلال قیاسی
a meaningful declarative sentence that is true or false, or. a proposition
statement
/ گزاره/ بیان/ حکم،
Logical result of the relationship between the premises
conclusion
استنتاج، نتیجه/ نتیجه گیری ، نتیجه
a statement or principle that is generally accepted to be true
axiom
Axioms are a handful of definitions and assumptions that we agree are true.
from Greek axios“worthy, worth”
the possibility that someone will make mistakes or that something will not work as it should
fallibility
The play deals with the fallibility of human nature.
He spoke frankly about his own fallibility.
جایزالخطا بودن
the capacity for some proposition, statement, theory or hypothesis to be proven wrong.
Falsifiability
Falsifiability is a standard of evaluation of scientific theories and hypotheses that was introduced by the philosopher of science Karl Popper in his book The Logic of Scientific Discovery. He proposed it as the cornerstone of a solution to both the problem of induction and the problem of demarcation.
ابطالپذیری
school was a school of Pre-socratic Philosophy of the 6th century BC, based in the Ionian town of Miletus. It is generally considered to be the first school of thought of Ancient Greek and thus Western philosophy.
Milesian school
(Greek, boundless) Hence in Greek philosophy the infinite, or formless, and the flux of opposites which need peras or a principle of order to be rendered intelligible.”
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy
Simon Blackburn
APEIRON
Anaximander (c.610–546bce) questioned how water or air could be primary substances . He claimed the world was once a germ that was born from an unknowable substance called the “apeiron” (“the indefinite”). In the beginning, opposing forces—such as hot and cold, and dry and wet—emerged from the germ, creating the Earth, with the stars, the Moon, and the Sun around it.
(Greek, boundless)
(Greek, statement, principle, law, reason, proportion)
logos
In *Heraclitus, the cosmic principle that gives order and rationality to the world, in a way analogous to that in which human reason orders human action. In *Plato and *Aristotle a similar function is performed by *nous. In *Stoicism the seminal reason (logos spermatikos) is the cosmic source of order; its aspects are fate, providence, and nature. Subordinate logoi seem to perform something of the function of Plato’s *forms. Logos also has another aspect: it is what enables us to apprehend the principles and forms, i.e. it is an aspect of our own “reasoning. The view becomes fused with Christian doctrine when logos is God’s instrument in the development (redemption) of the world. The notion survives in the idea of *laws of nature, if these are conceived of as independent guides of the natural course of events, existing beyond the temporal world that they order.”
Excerpt From
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy
Simon Blackburn
One of these duties is explaining the universe; and the way philosophers do that is through a process known as “… ….”
rational reflection
Rational reflection is simply reflecting and thinking about the world around you and attempting to get to the basis of why things are the way they are.
Rational reflection provides us with principles that are true for everyone.
تفکر عقلانی
the belief that we gain knowledge primarily through experience rather than reason
Empiricism
Unlike rationalists, empiricists argue that mathematics does not provide us with knowledge but is simply a framework within which to think about the world. The first modern empiricist was John Locke (1632–1704). Following Aristotle, he argued that our senses supply us with knowledge and that reasoning is the process by which we organize our experiences. With its focus on observation, empiricism is the basis of modern science.
derives from the Ancient Greek word ἐμπειρία, empeiria, which is cognate with and translates to the Latin experientia, from which the words experience and experiment are derived.
Cosmology
Egyptian Natural scientist and astrologist, reported to have computed positions of the planets.
Aganice (1875-1750 BCE)
was a member of the court of Pharaoh Sestoris in Egypt,
she lived about 1875 BCE and was a member of the court of Pharaoh Sestoris in Egypt.She studied globes and constellations in order to predict future events. It is reported that she computed the positions of the planets.
The Latin …………. , usually translated into English as “I think, therefore I am”, is the “first principle” of René Descartes’s philosophy.
“cogito, ergo sum”
Our entire life could be a hoax staged by an evil trickster
Descartes’ demon (The evil demon)
a person who studies or is a specialist in religion
theologian
The early split in Christian history between the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Roman) Catholic Church was largely caused by a dispute over the following question: Does the Holy Ghost ‘proceed from’ (whatever that might mean) the Father and the Son, or just from the Father? That really is the kind of thing theologians spend their time thinking about.
مُتَکَلِّم / عالِم علم کلام/ حکیم الهی/
متکلم با فیلسوف متفاوت است. یکی از فرقهای متکلم با فیلسوف این است که متکلم از پیش اعتقادات دینی را پذیرفته و خود را موظف و متعهد به دفاع از آنها میداند، در حالی که فیلسوف خود را متعهد به دفاع از آموزههای دینی نمیداند و هدف او صرفاً شناخت حقیقت هستی به روشی آزادانه است.
The term derives from the Greek theologia (θεολογία), a combination of theos (Θεός, ‘god’) and logia (λογία, ‘utterances, sayings, oracles’)—the latter word relating to Greek logos (λόγος, ‘word, discourse, account, reasoning’).[9][10] The term would pass on to Latin as theologia, then French as théologie, eventually becoming the English theology.
the belief in a single god who does not act to influence events, and whose existence has no connection with religions, religious buildings, or religious books, etc.
deism
Others call themselves ‘deists’. Deists don’t believe in any of the thousands of named gods of history. But they believe in something a little more definite than pantheists do. They believe in a creative intelligence who invented the laws of the universe, set everything in motion at the beginning of time and space, and then sat back and did nothing more: just let everything happen according to the laws that he (it?) had laid down.
خداپرستی بدون اعتقاد به پیامبران و مسائل دیگرمذهبی
a comic playwright or comedy-writer of ancient Athens and a poet of Old Attic Comedy
Aristophanes
Quote by who?
“Open your mind before your mouth.”
Aristophanes
Quote by who
“knowing other is intelligence, knowing yourself is true wisdom.”
Laozi
C 6th century BCE Daode jing (also known as the Laozi)
Daoism
One of the most important ideas to appear at this time came from the Daode jing (The Way and its Power), which has been attributed to Laozi (Lao Tzu). It was one of the first attempts to propose a theory of just rule, based on de (virtue), which could be found by following dao (the Way), and forms the basis of the philosophy known as Daoism.
Quote by who
“Reason is immoral, all else mortal.
Pythagoras (C.570–495 BCE)
the earliest historian of philosophy whose work survives
Aristotle
The tradition of beginning the history of Western philosophy with the Ionian theorists of the sixth century is as old as the history of philosophy itself; Aristotle, the earliest historian of philosophy whose work survives, describes Thales (Metaphysics 983b20–1) as ‘the founder of that kind of philosophy’, i.e. the enquiry into the basic principles of the physical world.
an Austrian-British philosopher, academic and social commentator. One of the 20th century’s most influential philosophers of science, He is known for his rejection of the classical inductivist views on the scientific method in favour of empirical falsification.
Karl Popper (1902-1994)
ancient stone circle in southern England is dotted with prehistoric burial mounds and ceremonial avenues. Nobody really knows why it was built or what the ancient Britons used it for, but historians suggest that it could have been part of an astronomical calendar or a site of pagan worship
Stonehenge
Nobody really knows why Stonehenge was built or what the ancient Britons used it for, but historians suggest that it could have been part of an astronomical calendar or a site of pagan worship. The 60 stones were rearranged in around 1500 bce.
The Sumerian god of water.
Enki
the orbital range around a star where the temperature is just right — not too hot and not too cold — for liquid water to exist on the planet.
Goldilocks Zone
also “Circumstellar habitable zone” (CHZ)
کمربند حیات
n
a mistaken belief or misleading argument that can lead to incorrect conclusions
fallacy
The word ‘fallacy’ derives from two Latin words, fallax (“deceptive”) and fallere (“to deceive”).
The philosophy of … ………… has been a major influence in the development of 20th-century philosophy, especially existentialism and postmodernism. He was a 19th-century Danish philosopher who has been labeled by many as the “Father of Existentialism
Søren Kierkegaard
fallacy
an informal logical fallacy where an argument is rejected or accepted based on its origin rather than its content.
مغلطه توسل به ریشهها
genetic fallacy
Example of genetic fallacy: The Nazis were the first to research passive smoking and prohibit smoking in public. Therefore, a smoking ban is unacceptable.” This is a genetic fallacy because the origin of the idea (Nazi Germany) is irrelevant to the truth of the argument (that smoking is bad and should be prohibited in public spaces)1.
مسموم کردن سرچشمه
poisoning the well
fallacy
a type of unfair argument where negative information about a person is shared before they present their case, making it difficult for others to consider their argument objectively.
poisoning the well
مسموم کردن سرچشمه
Example: “Before you listen to my opponent’s argument, remember that he failed his last two debates.” In this case, the speaker is trying to discredit the opponent’s argument before it’s even been made, by suggesting that the opponent’s past failures make their current argument invalid.
The man who asked questions
Socrates
Pic: Constantin Brancusi Sculpture
We know nothing
Pyrrho
Ancient Greek philosopher, often considered the first Skeptic.
Pyrrho
He was a product of a system that had somehow prevented him thinking critically about his own actions and the results they produced for real people.
(A little history of philosophy, by Nigel Warburton. pg 211)
Adolf Eichmann
Hannah Arendt used the words ‘………’ to describe what she saw in Eichmann. If something is ‘banal’, it is common, boring and unoriginal.
the banality of evil’
Eichmann’s evil was, she claimed, banal in the sense that it was the evil of a bureaucrat, of an office manager, rather than a devil. Here was this very ordinary sort of man who had allowed Nazi views to affect everything he did.
Source: a little history of philosophy. pg 212
For Popper a key feature of any hypothesis is that it has to be….
Falsifiable
He used this idea to explain the difference between science and what he called ‘pseudo-science’.
Source: a little history of philosophy,page 218
when a whole way of understanding is overturned.
paradigm shift
Things get interested when what Thomas Kuhn called a ‘paradigm shift’. This can happen when scientists find things that don’t fit in with the existing paradigm – such as observations that didn’t make sense within the paradigm that the sun goes round the earth.
