Knowledge Flashcards
1
Q
a Polish philosopher and historian of ideas. He is best known for his critical analyses of Marxist thought, such as in his three-volume history of Marxist philosophy Main Currents of Marxism (1976)
A
Leszek Kołakowski (1927 – 2009)
He became one of Marxism’s greatest intellectual critics.
لشک کولاکوفسکی
2
Q
a German philosopher who is widely regarded as one of the most important philosophers of the 20th century. He is best known for contributions to phenomenology, hermeneutics, and existentialism.
A
Martin Heidegger
3
Q
difficult to understand; obscure
A
abstruse
A Heidegger of German idealist philosophy, preoccupied with abstruse but fundamental questions of time, death, and the underlying anxiety or Angst of human living …
4
Q
philosophy of consciousness
A
Phenomenology
(from Greek phainómenon “that which appears” and lógos “study”)
پدیدارشناسی
5
Q
the philosophical inquiry into how we make interpretations
A
HERMENEUTICS
6
Q
the way in which someone explains or understands an event, information, someone’s actions etc
A
interpretation
Heidegger has been interpreted more positively…. contributor to modern HERMENEUTICS (the philosophical inquiry into how we make interpretations), crucial to the key hermeneutic theorist, Hans-Georg Gadamer.
7
Q
was a leading Continental philosopher of the twentieth century. His importance lies in his development of hermeneutic philosophy.
A
Hans-Georg Gadamer
the key hermeneutic theorist, Hans-Georg Gadamer.
8
Q
the belief in philosophy that people are responsible for their own actions and experiences, and that the world has no meaning
A
existentialism
9
Q
In a very broad sense, there are six major themes philosophy touches on:
A
- Metaphysics: The study of the universe and reality
- Logic: How to create a valid argument
- Epistemology: The study of knowledge and how we acquire knowledge
- Aesthetics: The study of art and beauty
- Politics: The study of political rights, government, and the role of citizens
- Ethics: The study of morality and how one should live his life
10
Q
the basic material of the universe (a primary principle)/
a first principle: a in early Greek philosophy : a substance or primal element.
A
archê /ˈɑːrki/
Ancient Greek: ἀρχή
a Greek word with primary senses “beginning”, “origin” or “source of action” from the beginning, the original argument), and later “first principle” or “element”…the basic material of the universe
archetype
\archespore
11
Q
One of the most important pre-Socratic philosophers, claimed the archê, or the single element, was water.
“The First Western Philosopher”
A
Thales (624–546 B.C.E)
Thales determined that water could experience principles of change like evaporation and condensation, therefore allowing for it to be gaseous or solid. He also knew that water was responsible for moisture (which heat was generated from) and nourishment. Thales even believed the earth floated on water.
12
Q
One of the most important pre-Socratic philosophers claimed the archê, the single element was actually an undefined, unlimited, and indefinite substance, known as apeiron.
A
Anaximander (610–546 B.C.E)
Anaximander is known for being the first philosopher that we know of to have left writings of his work.
13
Q
an important pre-Socratic philosopher of the Milesian school who believed the archê, the single element was air
A
Anaximenes (585–528 B.C.E)
According to Anaximenes, air is everywhere and has the ability to undergo processes and become transformed into other things, such as water, clouds, wind, fire, and even the earth.
14
Q
Philosopher and mathematician believed that the basis of all reality was mathematical relations and that mathematics governed everything.
A
Pythagoras (570–497 B.C.E)
o Pythagoras, numbers were sacred, and with the use of mathematics, everything could be measured and predicted. The impact and image of Pythagoras was astounding. His school was cult-like, with followers listening to his every word … and even his strange rules, which covered anything from what and what not to eat, how to dress, and even how to urinate. Pythagoras philosophized on many areas, and his students believed that his teachings were the prophecies of the gods.
15
Q
an Ancient Greek, pre-Socratic, philosopher claimed the archê, the single element was fire and that everything was a manifestation of fire.
A
Heraclitus of Ephesus (535–475 B.C.E).
Heraclitus believed that everything in nature is constantly changing, or in a state of flux. He is perhaps most famous for his notion that one cannot step in the same river twice. Heraclitus believed that the single element was fire and that everything was a manifestation of fire.
16
Q
one of the most important Pre-Socratic philosophers, known for his critique of religion and mythology
A
Xenophanes (570–475 B.C.E)
He attacked the notion that the gods were anthropomorphic (or took a human form). Xenophanes believed there was one god that, while it did not physically move, had the ability to hear, see, and think, and controlled the world with his thoughts.
17
Q
a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. He has been considered the founder of metaphysics or ontology and has influenced the whole history of Western philosophy.
A
Parmenides (510–440 B.C.E)
Parmenides had an incredible impact on Plato and all of Western philosophy. His work led the school of Elea to become the first movement to use pure reason as the only criterion for finding truth.
18
Q
a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who devoted his time to creating arguments (known as paradoxes)
A
Zeno of Elea (490–430 B.C.E)
In Zeno’s most famous paradoxes, the paradoxes of motion
Parmenides and Zeno believed that reality existed as one thing, and that things like plurality and motion were nothing more than illusions. Though the work of Zeno would later be disproved, his paradoxes still raise important questions, challenges, and inspirations for philosophers, physicists, and mathematicians.
19
Q
Greek philosopher claimed distinguished between is and seems.
A
Melissus of Samos (around 440 B.C.E)
When a thing is X, according to Melissus of Samos, it has to always be X (and never not X). Therefore, according to this idea, when something is cold, it can never stop being cold. But since this is not the case, and properties are not retained indefinitely, nothing (except for the Parmenidean Real, reality existing as one continuous, unchanging thing) actually ever is; rather, it seems.
20
Q
reported in some ancient sources to have been a philosopher who was the earliest Greek to develop the theory of atomism
A
Leucippus (5th century BCE)
believed that every physical object is made up of atoms and void (empty space that atoms move in) that are arranged in different ways. This idea is not too far from the concepts of atoms that we know today. This school believed that atoms were incredibly small particles (so small that they could not be cut in half) that differed in size, shape, motion, arrangement, and position, and that when put together, these atoms created what is seen in the visible world.
21
Q
an Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher primarily remembered today for his formulation of an atomic theory of the universe
A
Democritus (460–370 B.C.E)
believed that every physical object is made up of atoms and void (empty space that atoms move in) that are arranged in different ways. This idea is not too far from the concepts of atoms that we know today. This school believed that atoms were incredibly small particles (so small that they could not be cut in half) that differed in size, shape, motion, arrangement, and position, and that when put together, these atoms created what is seen in the visible world.
22
Q
a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of existence
A
ontology
from Greek ōn, ont- ‘being’ + -logy.
23
Q
a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as a founder of Western philosophy and the first moral philosopher of the Western ethical tradition of thought.
A
SOCRATES (469–399 B.C.)
The game-changer
24
Q
a logical refutation.
the Socratic method of eliciting truth by question and answer, especially as used to refute an argument.
A
elenchus
Socrates used the elenchus, a method in which he would refute the claims of the other person.
25
disprove, to prove that something is wrong
**refute**
26
an Athenian philosopher during the Classical period in Ancient Greece, founder of the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world.
**PLATO** (429–347 B.C.)
## Footnote
One of the founders of Western philosophy
PLATO’S CAVE: Knowledge versus the senses
27
an argument or set of reasons that you put forward to oppose an idea or theory
**counterargument**
## Footnote
many of Plato's dialogues do not reach a concise conclusion. Those that do, however, allow for possible **counterarguments** and doubts.
استدلالهای متقابل
28
a story, play, picture, etc. in which each character or event is a symbol representing an idea or a quality, such as truth, evil, death, etc.; the use of such symbols
**Allegory**
The Allegory of the Cave reads as a conversation between Socrates and Plato’s brother, Glaucon. In the dialogue, Socrates asks Glaucon to imagine a world where an illusion is perceived as reality.
29
an allegory presented by the Greek philosopher Plato in his work Republic (514a–520a)
**The Allegory of the cave**, or **Plato's Cave**
## Footnote
The main theme of Plato's Allegory of the Cave in the Republic is that human perception cannot derive true knowledge, and instead, real knowledge can only come via philosophical reasoning
30
a philosophical theory, concept, or world-view, attributed to Plato, that the physical world is not as real or true as timeless, absolute, unchangeable ideas.
**The theory of Forms**
## Footnote
Plato’s theory of Forms is what allows people to finally turn around and discover the truth. In essence, knowledge gained through the senses and perception is not knowledge at all, but opinion. It is only through philosophical reasoning that one is able to pursue knowledge.
31
the notion that philosophy should focus on the experience of human existence in this world.
**existentialism**
## Footnote
"The individual and the human experience"
In other words, existentialism seeks out the meaning of life and finding oneself.
هستی گرایی، وجود گرایی
32
Danish theologian, philosopher, poet, social critic, and religious author who is widely considered to be the first existentialist philosopher
**Søren Kierkegaard (**1813\_1855**)**
33
**Friedrich Nietzsche** (1844-1900)
34
**political philosophy**
35
British philosopher, logician, and social critic. As an academic, he worked in philosophy, mathematics, and logic.
**Bertrand Russell (1872-1970)**
## Footnote
an English philosopher and writer. He began his career as a writer on mathematics and logic, and his best-known early book is Principia Mathematica (1910-13). He also taught philosophy, and in 1912-13 Ludwig Wittgenstein was one of his students at Cambridge University. In 1931 he became the 3rd Earl Russell. Among his other works are popular books on philosophy, education and social issues, and his History of Western Philosophy (1945) was particularly successful. He won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1950. In the later years of his life he was famous for his strong political opinions. He became the first president of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament in 1958.
36
the formal study of the principles of art and beauty
**aesthetics**
37
**study** of value, such as **ethics** and **aestherics**
**axiology**
## Footnote
The main difference between **axiology** and **ethics** is that **axiology** is the **study of values** whereas **ethics** is **the study of moral principles**. Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with moral concepts like right and wrong, virtue and vice as well as good and evil.
Greek **axios**, “**worthy**”; logos, “science”
38
stating your opinions in a strong way and not accepting anyone else's opinions
**dogmatism**
Greek dogma (genitive dogmatos) "opinion, tenet,"
تعصب مذهبی، خشک اندیشی، تعصب، جزمیت
39
**Quote** by?
"**philosophy begins in wonder**"
**Socrates**
## Footnote
**Plato** writes, quoting **Socrates**, “Wonder is the feeling of a philosopher, and philosophy begins in wonder.”
“Socrates said that “**philosophy begins in wonder**.” In Western civilization, philosophy began when a group of Greek sages in the Aegean seaport of Miletus sought to satisfy their sense of wonder by asking new kinds of questions. Instead of relying on mythology and supernatural forces to explain nature, these thinkers began to use reason and observation. This marked the beginning of science as well as philosophy.”
Excerpt From
The Philosophy Book: From the Vedas to the New Atheists, 250 Milestones in the History of Philosophy
Gregory Bassham
This material may be protected by copyright.
40
**skepticism**
41
**dogma**
42
**Quote by who?**
**"it is not possible to step twice into the same river"**
**Heraclitus**
43
any **justification** of a **belief** that appeals only to the **belief's origin** or **genesis** instead of to its **justification.**
هر گونه توجیه یک باور که به جای دلیل اوری آن، فقط به منشأ یا پیدایش آن باور متوسل می شود.
**genetic account**
44
a good reason or explanation for something
**justification**
دلیل اوری/ دلیل، فرنود
45
serving as justification or capable of justifying; vindicatory
**justificatory**
## Footnote
Give me reason why I -and everyone else --ought to hold a belief. That's what philosophers are interested in: the **justificatory account** of a belief.
توجیهی
46
“ A ............ of an \*argument is one of the propositions from which together the conclusion is derived.
Excerpt From
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy
Simon Blackburn
**premise (premiss)**
صغری یا کبری, مقدمه، فرض (مفروضات)، قضیه
47
a **process of reasoning** in which a conclusion is drawn from **a set of premises**
\*the oxford dictionary of philosophy
**deduction**
(منطق) استدلال قیاسی، استنتاج (استدلال از کل به جز یا رسیدن
قیاس، وضع، استنتاج،/
48
an **argument** that is intended to provide support for its **conclusion** such that if the **premises** are true, then the **conclusion** must be **true**.
**deductive argument**
استدلال استنتاجی، استدلال قیاسی
49
a meaningful declarative sentence that is true or false, or. a proposition
**statement**
/ گزاره/ بیان/ حکم،
50
Logical result of the relationship between the premises
**conclusion**
استنتاج، نتیجه/ نتیجه گیری ، نتیجه
51
a **statement** or principle that is generally **accepted** to be **true**
**axiom**
## Footnote
**Axioms** are a handful of definitions and assumptions that we agree are true.
from Greek **axios**"**worthy**, **worth"**
52
the possibility that someone will make mistakes or that something will not work as it should
**fallibility**
## Footnote
The play deals with the **fallibility** of human nature.
He spoke frankly about his own **fallibility**.
جایزالخطا بودن
53
the capacity for some proposition, statement, theory or hypothesis to be proven wrong.
**Falsifiability**
**Falsifiability** is a standard of evaluation of scientific theories and hypotheses that was introduced by the philosopher of science **Karl Popper** in his book **The Logic of Scientific Discovery**. He proposed it as the cornerstone of a solution to both the problem of induction and the problem of demarcation.
ابطالپذیری
54
school was a school of Pre-socratic Philosophy of the 6th century BC, based in the Ionian town of Miletus. It is generally considered to be the first school of thought of Ancient Greek and thus Western philosophy.
**Milesian school**
55
(in philosophy) the belief that everything has a special purpose or use
**Teleology**
## Footnote
***_ARISTOTELIAN TELEOLOGY_***: Aristotle argued that everything has a **telos**, or purpose. The purpose of a seed, for example, is to germinate and grow into a plant, while the purpose of the plant is to bear seeds and reproduce. Likewise, the purpose of rain is to water the earth, enabling plants to grow, which in turn provide food for animals and humans. (Simply Philosophy. p: 22)
56
a thought experiment about whether an object that has had all of its original components replaced remains the same object.
**ship of theseus**
57
**quote by who?**
“Intellect is the swiftest of things, for it runs through everything.”
Thales of Miletus
58
quote by who
“Water is the first principle …”
**Thales of Miletus**
59
(Greek, boundless) Hence in Greek philosophy the infinite, or formless, and the flux of opposites which need peras or a principle of order to be rendered intelligible.”
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy
Simon Blackburn
**APEIRON**
## Footnote
Anaximander (c.610–546bce) questioned how water or air could be primary substances . He claimed the world was once a germ that was born from an unknowable substance called the “apeiron” (“the indefinite”). In the beginning, opposing forces—such as hot and cold, and dry and wet—emerged from the germ, creating the Earth, with the stars, the Moon, and the Sun around it.
**(Greek, boundless)**
60
quote by who:
“Number is the ruler of forms and ideas.”
**Pythagoras (**c. 570 BC-c. 495 BC)
61
(Greek, statement, principle, law, reason, proportion)
**logos**
## Footnote
In \*Heraclitus, the cosmic principle that gives order and rationality to the world, in a way analogous to that in which human reason orders human action. In \*Plato and \*Aristotle a similar function is performed by \*nous. In \*Stoicism the seminal reason (logos spermatikos) is the cosmic source of order; its aspects are fate, providence, and nature. Subordinate logoi seem to perform something of the function of Plato’s \*forms. Logos also has another aspect: it is what enables us to apprehend the principles and forms, i.e. it is an aspect of our own “reasoning. The view becomes fused with Christian doctrine when logos is God’s instrument in the development (redemption) of the world. The notion survives in the idea of \*laws of nature, if these are conceived of as independent guides of the natural course of events, existing beyond the temporal world that they order.”
Excerpt From
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy
Simon Blackburn
62
One of these duties is explaining the universe; and the way philosophers do that is through a process known as “... ....”
**rational reflection**
## Footnote
**Rational reflection** is simply reflecting and thinking about the world around you and attempting to get to the basis of why things are the way they are.
**Rational reflection** provides us with principles that are true for everyone.
تفکر عقلانی
63
the belief that we **gain knowledge** primarily through **experience** rather than reason
**Empiricism**
## Footnote
Unlike **rationalists**, **empiricists** argue that mathematics does not provide us with knowledge but is simply a framework within which to think about the world. The first modern **empiricist** was **John Locke** (1632–1704). Following **Aristotle**, he argued that our senses supply us with **knowledge** and that **reasoning** is the process by which we organize our **experiences**. With its focus on **observation**, **empiricism** is **the basis of modern science**.
derives from the Ancient Greek word ἐμπειρία, empeiria, which is cognate with and translates to the Latin experientia, from which the words experience and experiment are derived.
64
Cosmology
Egyptian Natural scientist and astrologist, reported to have computed positions of the planets.
**Aganice (1875-1750 BCE)**
## Footnote
was a member of the court of Pharaoh Sestoris in Egypt,
she lived about **1875 BCE** and was a member of the court of Pharaoh Sestoris in **Egypt**.She **studied globes and constellations** in order to **predict future events**. It is reported that she computed **the positions of the planets**.
65
The Latin ............. , usually translated into English as "I **think, therefore I am"**, is the "first principle" of **René Descartes**'s philosophy.
**"cogito, ergo sum"**
66
Our entire life could be a hoax staged by an **evil trickster**
**Descartes' demon (**The evil demon**)**
67
**believe** in lots of **gods** all at the same time
**Polytheist**
## Footnote
(theos is Greek for ‘god’ and poly is Greek for ‘many’)
Wotan (or Odin) was the chief god of the Vikings. Other Viking gods were Baldr (god of beauty), Thor (the thunder god with his mighty hammer) and his daughter Throd. There were goddesses like Snotra (goddess of wisdom), Frigg (goddess of motherhood) and Ran (goddess of the sea).
مشرک
OPP: **monotheist**
68
in Norse mythology (= ancient stories from Scandinavia), the god of war and death
**Odin (**Wotan)
69
the particular set of all gods of any individual polytheistic religion, mythology, or tradition
**Pantheon**
## Footnote
In the ancient Iranian **pantheon**, Mithra, analogous to the ancient Indian god Mitra, was the god of contracts and friendship, but he was also worshiped as the god of light and of the sun.
pantheon derives from Greek πάνθεον pantheon, literally "(a temple) of all gods",
70
the name of God that is used in the Old Testament of the Bible
**Yahweh** (Yahwe)
## Footnote
**Yahwe**, the judeo god, shares traits with El and Baal. (pg 52, national geographic essential visual history of world religion)
71
three religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam, are often grouped together as the ‘... ...',
**Abrahamic religions**
## Footnote
because all three trace back to the mythical patriarch **Abraham**, who is also revered as the founder of the Jewish people.
72
the **belief** that there are **no** **deities** of **any kind**.
**Atheism**
73
a person who **studies** or is a **specialist** in **religion**
**theologian**
## Footnote
The early split in Christian history between the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Roman) Catholic Church was largely caused by a dispute over the following question: Does the Holy Ghost ‘proceed from’ (whatever that might mean) the Father and the Son, or just from the Father? That really is the kind of thing **theologians** spend their time thinking about.
مُتَکَلِّم / عالِم علم کلام/ حکیم الهی/
متکلم با فیلسوف متفاوت است. یکی از فرقهای متکلم با فیلسوف این است که متکلم از پیش اعتقادات دینی را پذیرفته و خود را موظف و متعهد به دفاع از آنها میداند، در حالی که فیلسوف خود را متعهد به دفاع از آموزههای دینی نمیداند و هدف او صرفاً شناخت حقیقت هستی به روشی آزادانه است.
The term derives from the Greek **theologia** (θεολογία), a combination of **theos** (Θεός, 'god') and **logia** (λογία, 'utterances, sayings, oracles')—the latter word relating to Greek logos (λόγος, 'word, discourse, account, reasoning').[9][10] The term would pass on to Latin as theologia, then French as théologie, eventually becoming the English theology.
74
“The view that **God** is in **everything**, or that **God** and **the universe** are **one**.
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy
Simon Blackburn
[**pantheism**](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pantheism/)
## Footnote
Some of these people call themselves ‘pantheists’. Pantheists are a little vague about what they believe. They say things like ‘My god is everything’ or ‘My god is nature’ or ‘My god is the universe’. Or ‘My god is the deep mystery of everything we don’t understand’. The great Albert Einstein used the word ‘God’ in pretty much this last sense. That’s very different from a god who listens to your prayers, reads your innermost thoughts and forgives (or punishes) your sins – all of which the Abrahamic God is supposed to do. Einstein was adamant that he didn’t believe in a personal god who does any of those things.
The most celebrated **pantheistic** system of modern philosophy is that of \***Spinoza**, although pantheistic rhetoric later flourished in the 19th century, for example in the work of \***Emerson**.”
The term ‘**pantheism**’ is a modern one, possibly first appearing in the writing of the Irish freethinker **John Toland** (1705) and constructed from the Greek roots **pan (all)** and **theos (God)**
75
the belief in a **single god** who does **not** **act** to **influence events**, and whose existence has no connection with religions, religious buildings, or religious books, etc.
**deism**
## Footnote
Others call themselves ‘**deists**’. **Deists** don’t believe in any of the thousands of named gods of history. But they believe in something a little more definite than **pantheists** do. They believe in a creative intelligence who invented **the laws of the universe**, set everything in motion at the beginning of time and space, and then sat back and did nothing more: just let everything happen according to the laws that he (it?) had laid down.
خداپرستی بدون اعتقاد به پیامبران و مسائل دیگرمذهبی
76
a **philosophy** based on the **premise** that **nothing exists** except **minds** and **spirits** and their **perceptions** or **ideas**
**subjective idealism**
## Footnote
**George Berkeley** (1685–1753) agreed with John Locke that people only gain knowledge through perception. However, Berkeley argued that because the experience of qualities such as taste and color can vary between people, there is no guarantee that we all perceive the world in the same way. He concluded that **reality consists entirely of minds and their ideas**—a theory known as **subjective idealism**—and that there is no justification for believing that the material world exists.
77
any of the four books of the Bible that contain details of the life of Jesus Christ
**Gospel**
St Mark's Gospel/the Gospel according to St Mark
انجیل Greek εὐαγγέλιον, meaning "good news":
78
**In the Christian religion,**... ........ is Jesus Christ's return to life on the third day after his death, or the return of all people to life at the end of the world.
**The Resurrection**
## Footnote
There’s lots about the religious meaning of Jesus, especially his death and resurrection. But almost nothing that even claims to be history.
رستاخیز
79
in the Jewish religion, a king who will be sent by God to save the Jewish people /
in the Christian religion, Jesus Christ/
**Messiah**
## Footnote
Christians taught that Jesus was the **Messiah** (‘Christ’ is simply the Greek translation of this word). But to a devout Jew, Jesus didn’t look at all like a military leader.
80
something that is true for everyone, whether they agree with it or not
**objective truth**
81
a fundemntal philosophical topic both for its cenrtal place in any **theory of knowledge** (Epistemology) and its central place in any **theory of consciousness**.
**perception**
82
**looking** **back** over the **past**
**retrospective**
## Footnote
Philosophy’s history, as today’s students and teachers of philosophy see it, is a **retrospective** construct.
83
a comic playwright or comedy-writer of ancient Athens and a poet of Old Attic Comedy
**Aristophanes**
84
Quote by who?
"Open your mind before your mouth."
**Aristophanes**
85
a term used especially for the works of classical historians, describing the points of view of past philosophers and scientists. The term was coined by the German classical scholar Hermann Alexander Diels.
**Doxography**
## Footnote
The scholarly task of identifying and collating this evidence is known as ‘**doxography**’. The term ‘**doxographer**’ is also applied to those individuals in ancient times who preserved scraps of the Presocratics’ writings or views by quoting or reporting them.
(Greek: **δόξα** – "an opinion", "a point of view" + γράφειν – "to write", "to describe")
(from Greek doxa opinion) + -graphus writer, from Greek -graphos
86
Quote by who
"Superstition sets the whole world in flame🔥,
philosophy quenches💧 them."
**Voltaire**
87
Quote by who
"Scepticism is the first step towards truth."
Dennis Diderot
88
Quote by who
"the beginning of thought is in disagreement, not only with others but also with ourselves."
Eric Hoffer
89
Perhaps the best- known quotation in philosophy is Descartes’ “...................”
"cogito, ergo sum"
## Footnote
(often translated from the Latin as “I think, therefore I am”). It ranks as one of the most important ideas in the history of philosophy, and is widely considered a turning point in thinking, leading us into the modern era.
90
Quote by who
“the point of philosophy is to start with something so simple as not to seem worth stating, and to end with something so paradoxical that no one will believe it.”
Bertrand Russell
91
A view of something as formed by a single element;
**Monism**
## Footnote
The idea that everything in the universe can be ultimately reduced to a single substance is the theory of monism, and Thales and his followers were the first to propose it within Western philosophy.
for example, the view that human beings do not consist of elements that are ultimately separable, like a body and a soul, but are of one single substance.
"یگانهانگاری" یا "یگانهگوهرانگاری" یا "مونیسم"
92
The branch of philosophy concerned with the ultimate nature of what exists.
**Metaphysics**
## Footnote
It questions the natural world “from outside”, and its questions cannot be answered by science.
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He is reputed to have predicted the total eclipse of the sun in **585** BCE.
**Thales** of Miletus
## Footnote
This practical turn of mind led him to believe that events in the world were not due to supernatural intervention, but had natural causes that reason and observation would reveal
94
Quote by who
"knowing other is intelligence, knowing yourself is true wisdom."
**Laozi**
## Footnote
C 6th century BCE **Daode jing** (also known as the **Laozi**)
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**Daoism**
## Footnote
One of the most important ideas to appear at this time came from the Daode jing (The Way and its Power), which has been attributed to Laozi (Lao Tzu). It was one of the first attempts to propose a theory of just rule, based on de (virtue), which could be found by following dao (the Way), and forms the basis of the philosophy known as **Daoism**.
96
Quote by who
"Reason is immoral, all else mortal.
Pythagoras (C.570–495 BCE)
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a philosophical movement that arose in **Vienna** in the **1920s** and was characterized by the view that **scientific knowledge** is the only kind of factual knowledge and that all traditional metaphysical doctrines are to be rejected as meaningless.
**logical positivism (**also called **logical** **empiricism**)
اثباتگرایی منطقی، پوزیویتیسم منطقی، تجربهگرایی منطقی
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a group of philosophers, scientists, and mathematicians formed in the 1920s that met regularly in Vienna to investigate **scientific language** and **scientific methodology**.
**The Vienna Circle (**German **Wiener Kreis)**
## Footnote
The **philosophical movement** associated with the **Circle** has been called variously **logical positivism**, **logical empiricism**, **scientific empiricism**, **neopositivism**, and **the unity of science movement**.
حلقه وین، مکتب وین
99
the idea that history is governed by **inexorable laws** directed towards the attainment of a **utopian** (more accurately, eutopian) goal.”
**historicism (**also known as **Historism)**
## Footnote
“**Karl** **Popper** wrote about politics, making a considerable mark with his controversial two-volumed work **The Open Society and its Enemies** in which he branded **Plato**, **Hegel** and **Marx** as ‘**historicists**’ committed to the idea that history is governed by inexorable laws directed towards the attainment of a utopian (more accurately, eutopian) goal. ”
Page 395. The history of philosophy, A,C,Grayling
تاریخگرا، معتقد به اصالت تاریخ، تاریخیگری، تاریخنگری، تاریخیت، تاریخباوری
اصحاب این عقیده، تاریخ را اصل قرار دادهاند
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of or relating to the part of Protestant Christianity that is based on the ideas of the German religious leader Martin Luther
***Lutheran***
## Footnote
***"*Karl** **Popper"** was born in Vienna, then the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, of Jewish parents who had converted to the **Lutheran** form of **Protestantism** shortly before his birth. ”
Excerpt From
The History of Philosophy
A. C. Grayling
101
Central to Marx’s thought is his theory of ... ..., which argued that human societies and their cultural institutions (like religion, law, morality, etc.) were the outgrowth of collective economic activity.
[**historical materialism**](http://routledgesoc.com/category/profile-tags/historical-materialism)
## Footnote
**“**Popper had already begun to be sceptical about what he came to describe as the ‘pseudoscience’ of **Marxist historical materialism**, which Party members were expected to accept as gospel, and he eventually converted to a form of social liberalism instead.”
Excerpt From
The History of Philosophy
A. C. Grayling
مادهباوری تاریخی، **مادهگرایی تاریخی یا ماتریالیسم تاریخی**
102
a political philosophy and type of libertarianism that stresses both individual freedom and social equality.
**Social liberalism**
## Footnote
"also known as **new** **liberalism** in the United Kingdom, **modern** **liberalism** in the United States, **left** **liberalism** (German: Linksliberalismus) in Germany, and **progressive** **liberalism** (Spanish: Liberalismo progresista) in Spanish-speaking countries":
“Popper had already begun to be sceptical about what he came to describe as the ‘pseudoscience’ of Marxist historical materialism, which Party members were expected to accept as gospel, and he eventually converted to a form of social liberalism instead.”
Excerpt From
The History of Philosophy
A. C. Grayling. Page 396
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A term used to describe an approach to the study of society that relies specifically on empirical scientific evidence, such as controlled experiments and statistics.
**Positivism**
## Footnote
اثباتگرایی، آیین اثباتی، پوزیتیویسم، مثبتگرایی،
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the philosophical doctrine which maintains that only statements that are empirically verifiable (i.e. verifiable through the senses) are cognitively meaningful, or else they are truths of logic.
**Verificationism**
## Footnote
“The **verificationism** of the Positivists was the trigger for development of Popper’s own views. On a **verificationist** view, scientific hypotheses are **confirmed** by observation and **infirmed** by the absence of confirming observations.
**Excerpt From
The History of Philosophy
A. C. Grayling. Page 397**
**تحقیقپذیری،راستیآزمایی**
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the earliest **historian of philosophy** whose work survives
**Aristotle**
## Footnote
The tradition of beginning the history of Western philosophy with the Ionian theorists of the sixth century is as old as the history of philosophy itself; **Aristotle**, the earliest historian of philosophy whose work survives, describes **Thales** (Metaphysics 983b20–1) as ‘the founder of that kind of philosophy’, i.e. the enquiry into the basic principles of the physical world.
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a theological perspective in which **gaps** in ***scientific*** **knowledge** are taken to be **evidence** or **proof** of **God's existence.**
**God of the gaps**
also(**Worshiping the gaps**)
خدای حفرهها، خدای رخنهپوش، یا خدای شکافها،پرستش شکافها
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**Totalitarianism**
**تمامیتگرایی، تمامیتطلبی، توتالیتاریانیسم**
**در دههی ۱۹۳۰ و ۱۹۴۰ روشنفکران اروپایی از سویی با پدیدهی فاشیسم و نازیسم مواجه شدند و از سویی دیگر با پدیدهی استالینیسم. و میدیدند با همه اختلافهای عقیدتی بین این رژیمها با پدیداری مشترک روبرو هستند و برای توصیف این پدیدار مشترک این واژه را وضع کردند**
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an Austrian-British philosopher, academic and social commentator. One of the 20th century's most influential philosophers of science, He is known for his rejection of the classical inductivist views on the scientific method in favour of empirical falsification.
***Karl Popper (1902-1994)***
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**believe**
## Footnote
For as long as there **have been** people, there **has** **been** the need for them to **believe** in something (or Someone). A **belief** **system** is a way of understanding the world.
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Discover the **seven** **dimensions**
that describe a **religion**...
According to **Ninian** **Smart**, a religious framework is composed of seven dimensions: narrative/mythological, doctrinal, ethical, institutional, material, ritual, and experiential (Smart, 1999)
## Footnote
Smart, N. (1999). **Dimensions of the sacred**: An anatomy of the world’s beliefs. University of California Press.
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ancient stone circle in southern England is dotted with prehistoric burial mounds and ceremonial avenues. Nobody really knows why it was built or what the ancient Britons used it for, but historians suggest that it could have been part of an astronomical calendar or a site of pagan worship
**Stonehenge**
## Footnote
Nobody really knows why **Stonehenge** was built or what the ancient Britons used it for, but ***historians*** suggest that it could have been part of an **astronomical** **calendar** or a **site of pagan worship. The 60 stones were rearranged in around 1500 bce.**
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The Sumerian god of water.
**Enki**
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the orbital range around a star where the temperature is just right — not too hot and not too cold — for liquid water to exist on the planet.
**Goldilocks Zone**
## Footnote
also **"Circumstellar habitable zone" (CHZ)**
کمربند حیات
114
clear or obvious without needing any proof or explanation
**self-evident**
## Footnote
The following proposition is often said to be **self**-**evident**:
«A finite whole is greater than, or equal to, any of its parts»
. بدیهی
Synonyms. axiomatic formal.
115
a theory of **knowledge** that holds that all knowledge and inferential knowledge (justified belief) rests ultimately on a certain foundation of no inferential knowledge.
**Foundationalism**
## Footnote
**مبناگرایی**
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It is the activity of working out the best way to think about things.
philosophy
117
To understand the human mind, understand ...........
Anon
**self-deception**
118
# n
a mistaken belief or misleading argument that can lead to incorrect conclusions
**fallacy**
## Footnote
The word ‘**fallacy**’ derives from two Latin words, fallax (“deceptive”) and fallere (“to deceive”).
119
The philosophy of ... ............ has been a major influence in the development of 20th-century philosophy, especially existentialism and postmodernism. He was a 19th-century Danish philosopher who has been labeled by many as the "**Father of Existentialism**
**Søren Kierkegaard**
120
# fallacy
an informal logical fallacy where an argument is rejected or accepted based on its origin rather than its content.
| مغلطه توسل به ریشهها
**genetic fallacy**
## Footnote
Example of **genetic fallacy**: The Nazis were the first to research passive smoking and prohibit smoking in public. Therefore, a smoking ban is unacceptable.” This is a **genetic fallacy** because the origin of the idea (Nazi Germany) is irrelevant to the truth of the argument (that smoking is bad and should be prohibited in public spaces)1.
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# fallacies
از مغالطههای «ادعای بدون استدلال» است و زمانی رخ میدهد که فرد به جای اثبات و استدلال، مسئله را بدیهی و واضح در نظر بگیرد و با ایجاد شرم و احساس ترس که هرکس قبول ندارد نادان است، راه مخالفت را برای مخاطب میبندد.
اتهام نادانی یا مغالطه «هر بچهٔ مدرسهای میداند»
## Footnote
هر بچه مدرسهای میداند که عادت کردن انسان به هر چیزی مانع رشد و تکامل اوست.
این یک حساب دو دو تا چهارتا است و هر کودکی آن را درک میکند که وقتی جامعه با تورم شدید رو به رو است دولت باید آزادی بیشتری به مردم و مطبوعات بدهد و نسبت به آنها سخت نگیرد.
این حقایق را به عنوان امر بدیهی تلقی میکنیم و نیازی به اثبات آنها نمیبینیم.
هر کس با این نکته مخالفت کند، احمق است.
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مسموم کردن سرچشمه
| poisoning the well
123
# fallacy
a type of unfair argument where negative information about a person is shared before they present their case, making it difficult for others to consider their argument objectively.
**poisoning the well**
| مسموم کردن سرچشمه
## Footnote
Example: “Before you listen to my opponent’s argument, remember that he failed his last two debates.” In this case, the speaker is trying to discredit the opponent’s argument before it’s even been made, by suggesting that the opponent’s past failures make their current argument invalid.
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The logical fallacy of saying a claim is true because an "authority figure" made it
The appeal to authority fallacy
125
The man who asked questions
Socrates
Pic: Constantin Brancusi Sculpture
126
The man who asked questions
Socrates
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A Greek concept meaning "happiness" or "flourishing," focused on human well-being through achieving one’s full potential.
Eudaimonia
Origins: The concept is central to Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics and other works of Greek philosophers like Plato and the Stoics.
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A Greek concept meaning "happiness" or "flourishing," focused on human well-being through achieving one’s full potential.
Eudaimonia
Origins: The concept is central to Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics and other works of Greek philosophers like Plato and the Stoics.
129
We know nothing
Pyrrho
130
Ancient Greek philosopher, often considered the first Skeptic.
Pyrrho
131
He was a product of a system that had somehow prevented him thinking critically about his own actions and the results they produced for real people.
(A little history of philosophy, by Nigel Warburton. pg 211)
Adolf Eichmann
132
Hannah Arendt used the words ‘.........' to describe what she saw in Eichmann. If something is ‘banal’, it is common, boring and unoriginal.
the banality of evil’
Eichmann’s evil was, she claimed, banal in the sense that it was the evil of a bureaucrat, of an office manager, rather than a devil. Here was this very ordinary sort of man who had allowed Nazi views to affect everything he did.
Source: a little history of philosophy. pg 212
133
For Popper a key feature of any hypothesis is that it has to be....
Falsifiable
He used this idea to explain the difference between science and what he called 'pseudo-science'.
Source: a little history of philosophy,page 218
134
when a whole way of understanding is overturned.
paradigm shift
Things get interested when what Thomas Kuhn called a 'paradigm shift'. This can happen when scientists find things that don’t fit in with the existing paradigm – such as observations that didn’t make sense within the paradigm that the sun goes round the earth.
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adjective formal
believing that all people are equally important and should have the same rights and opportunities in life:
egalitarian us /ɪˌɡæl.ɪˈter.i.ən/
Marx was an **egalitarian** : he thought human beings should be treated equally. But in the capitalist system those who had money – often from inherited wealth – got richer and richer. Meanwhile those who had nothing but their labour to sell lived wretched lives and were exploited. For Marx, the whole of human history could be explained as a class struggle: the struggle between the rich capitalist class (the bourgeoisie) and the working class or proletariat. This relationship stopped human beings achieving their potential and turned work into something painful rather than a fulfilling kind of activity.
(A little history of philosophy. Page 159)
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Which philosopher was a slave before became philosopher
Epictetus (AD 55- 135)
