Know the characteristics of muscle Flashcards
Muscle (fiber) cells are elongated Contraction is due to the movement of myofilaments Prefix: myo: muscle mys: muscle sarco: flesh
Know the characteristics of muscle
Muscle (fiber) cells are elongated Contraction is due to the movement of myofilaments Prefix: myo: muscle mys: muscle sarco: flesh
List and describe the functions of the muscular system
Produce movement
Maintain posture
Stabilize joints
Generate heat
Cardiac Muscle
Only in the heart Involuntary Joined to other cells at intercalated discs Has striations Usually has 1 nucleus
Skeletal Muscle
Voluntary Multinucleated Striations Attached to bone by tendons Cells are bundled and surrounded by connective tissue
Smooth Muscle
Has no striations
Involuntary
Spindle-shaped
Single nucleus
the functions and the sequence of the connective tissue coverings of a muscle
Endomysium- innermost layer of connective tissue (muscle fiber)
Perimysium- middle layer of connective tissue (fascicle)
Epimysium- outermost layer of connective tissue (muscle)
where the nuclei and mitochondria are found in muscle cells
Nuclei- muscle fiber, just beneath sarcolemma
what causes the regular striations in muscle tissue
Action potential arrives at axon branches of a motor neuron
Synaptic vesicles containing Ach fuse with the neuron membrane
Acetylcholine is released into the synaptic cleft
Ach binds to receptors on the cells motor end plate
Bound receptor creates action potential in muscle cells
Mitochondria make neurotransmitters and provide ATP
Describe the ions that move into and out of muscle fibers and create the action potential necessary for contraction to occur
ATP- (ADP+energy) Attaches and energizes the myosin head
Calcium- (attaches to actin) Active site on the actin is exposed due to the binding of Ca2+
Power stroke: myosin head pivots, pulling actin towards the m line (ADP+P are released)
Detachment: As new ATP attaches to myosin head, the cross bridge detaches
Myosin resets(return stroke): ATP->ADP released energy recocks the myosin to prepare for the next stroke
Compare and contrast the structures and regions found in relaxed muscle fiber with those of a contracted muscle fiber
Z-disc: Stays the same length, moves closer together H-zone: Disappears Sarcomere: Shortens Myosin: Stays the same length Actin: Stays the same length I-band: Smaller A-band: Stays the same Muscle: Shortens
Sequence the structures of a muscle from superficial to deep
Epimysium Muscle Perimysium Fascicle Endomysium Muscle fiber Myofibril Sarcomere
structures of thin myofilaments
Actin
Troponin
Tropomyosin
Molecules strung together like beads to form 2 fibrous strands that wrap around each other
structures of thick myofilaments
Myosin
Shape like golf clubs, with their long shafts bundled together to form a thick filament and their “heads” sticking out from the bundle
Events of NMJ
Action potential arrives at axon branches of a motor neuron
Synaptic vesicles containing Ach fuse with the neuron membrane
Acetylcholine is released into the synaptic cleft
Ach binds to receptors on the cells motor end plate
Bound receptor creates action potential in muscle cells
Mitochondria make neurotransmitters and provide ATP
Central Nervous System
Brain & spinal cord
Process and interprets sensory input and decides action is needed
Interneurons (association neurons)
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Comprised of all nerves outside brain & spinal cord
Sensory (afferent) Division
Send impulses from senses to the CNS
Motor (Efferent) Division
sends impulse from CNS to muscle/glands
Sympathetic Division
“Fight or flight”
Autonomic Nervous System
Involuntary control
Somatic Nervous System
voluntary control
Parasympathetic Division
“Rest and Digest”
Sequence the connective tissue sheaths of a nerve from superficial to deep
Epineurium
Perineurium
Endoneurium
Unipolar:
Unipolar: Exclusively sensory neurons, only 1 protoplasmic process extends from the cell body
Bipolar:
Bipolar: Have 2 processes that extend from each end of the cell body, one is axon the other is a dendrite, Special senses like smell, sight…
Multipolar:
Multipolar: Have one axon and two or more dendrites, almost all neurons in the CNS and motor neurons are multipolar
Dendrite
Receive impulses from other neurons or from the senses, impulse travels toward the cell body
Neurilemma
Protects axon and the nerves, as well as allows regeneration from injury
Axon
Carries info away from the cell body
Schwann cell
Provide myelin insulation to neurons in PNS
Node of Ranvier
Gaps in the myelin sheath that allow the impulse to travel quickly
Axonal terminal
specialized to release the neurotransmitters of the presynaptic cell
Cell body
Nucleus & organelles
Nissl substance
Specialized RER
purpose of myelin and its function
Purpose: speeds up the conduction of an impulse
Function: an insulating layer of fat produced by Schwann Cells (PNS)
Ependymal cells
circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Schwann cells-
provide myelin insulation to neurons in the PNS
Microglia * Immune response *
spider-like phagocytes
dispose of debris
Oligodendrocytes-
provide myelin insulation to neurons in the CNS
Astrocytes
Supports and anchor neurons to surrounding capillaries
Controls the chemical environment
type of ions that are involved in the formation of an action potential
Na+
K+
which direction the ions move in the creation of an action potential
Resting State
Impulse arrives and threshold is met
Depolarization
Voltage gated Na+ channels open and Na+ enters the cell
Repolarization
Voltage gated K+ channels open and K+ leaves the cell, Na+ channels begin to rest
(Returning to) resting state
Na+/K+ pump restores original ion levels within a cell ~ATP~
4 events that take place during the conduction of a nerve impulse
Resting State
Voltage activated Na+ and K+ channels are closed
Depolarization
Voltage activated Na+ channels are open and there is a rapid influx of Na+ ions
The interior of neuron become positive relative to the outside
Repolarization
Voltage activated Na+ channels close and the K+ channels open
K+ moves out of cell, restoring the negative charge to the cell interior
(Returning to) resting state
Voltage activated Na+ and K+ channels close to return the neuron to the resting state
Name the parts of the brain system
Sensory Input
Integration
Motor Output
Synapse
The traveling of impulses
Gyri
Elevated folds
Sulci
Grooves
Fissures
Deeper sulci
Ganglia
Collection of cell bodies outside the CNS
Efferent neuron
Motor neurons that carry away info from the CNS
Afferent neuron-
Sensory neurons that carry impulses to the CNS
Association neuron
Neurons that carry info from Efferent to Afferent neurons
Midbrain
Eye movements, processes visual and auditory data, Consciousness
Pons
Message station, Subconscious somatic and visceral motor centers
Medulla oblongata
Involuntary functions (Digestive, Heart, Breathing stuff), relays info from spine to the thalamus
Thalamus
main relay center for all sensory messages that enter the brain, before they are transmitted to the cerebrum
Hypothalamus
Controls ANS system
Links nervous and endocrine system
Regulates thirst, body temp, and sleep
function of the Broca’s area of the cerebrum
The motor speech area… speech production
What area of the brain does the central sulcus separate
The central sulcus separates the parietal lobe from the frontal lobe and the primary motor cortex from the primary somatosensory cortex
SNS
“Fight or flight” Responds to unusual stimuli Increase activities “E” division Exercise, excitement, embarrassment, and emergency Involuntary
PNS
“Rest and digest” Housekeeping Conserves energy Maintains daily necessary body function “D” division Digestion, detecation, and diuresis Involuntary
meningeal layers from superficial to deep
Dura Mater
Arachnoid
Pia Mater
Name the substances that can cross the blood brain barrier
Water Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Hormones Small lipid soluble substances
List the elements of a typical reflex arc
* Stimuli *
Receptor Sensory Neuron Integration Center Motor Neuron Effector
spinal nerves from superior to inferior
Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbra
Sacral
CVA
“Stroke” Blood flow to the brain is stopped due to a blockage or a ruptured blood vessel
Concussion
Caused by a blow to the head, or whiplash. Bruising of the brain
Contusion
a bruise, capillaries are damaged by trauma, causing a localized internal bleeding that extravasate into the surrounding interstitial tissues.
Cerebral edema
a swelling in the brain caused by the presence of excessive fluid.
Alzheimer’s
Brain cell connections and the cells themselves degenerate and die, eventually destroying memory and other important mental functions.
Meissner’s corpuscles
Respond to light touch
Pacinian corpuscles
Detect vibration and pressure
Naked nerve endings
Bring info from the body to the brain, detect pain
Golgi tendon organs
Allows reflexes, senses tension. Does not let muscle create force if too much tension is exhibited.
Muscle spindles
Detects length change in muscles, makes sure the muscles don’t overextend
functions and physical characteristics of blood
Sticky, opaque fluid with a metallic taste
Oxygen rich = scarlet red
Oxygen poor = dark (dull) red
Distributing substances, regulating bld levels of particular substances and protecting the body
type of tissue that characterizes blood
Connective Tissue
what is a normal life span for RBC’s and thrombocytes
100-120 days
List the layers of centrifuged blood
Plasma (55%)
Platelets (<1%)
RBCs (45%)
Identify the characteristics of plasma
90% H20
10% salts, waste, nutrients, dissol
ved gases, hormones, vitamins, minerals, enzymes, etc.
Proteins (3)
Albumins- regulates osmotic pressure
Clotting proteins- fibrinogen
Globulins- antibodies
function of hemoglobin
to transport oxygen from the lungs to the body’s tissues and then transport carbon dioxide out of the tissue back to the lungs
Iron containing protein
4 binding sites for O2
Granulocytes
Neutrophil
Eosinophil
Basophil
Agranulocytes
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Neutrophil-
Engulf and destroy foreign invaders
Increase during infection
Eosinophil-
2 lobed nuclei
Kill parasitic worms ingested in food
Lessens allergic reactions
Basophil
Release histamine, which dilate blood vessels so other leukocytes can rush to an infection/allergen
Lymphocytes
initiating an immune response when a foreign invader enters the body
Large, spherical nucleus
Mostly in lymph cells
Categorized as T-cells or B-cells
Monocytes-
Nucleus is kidney-shaped
Leave the blood and become macrophages
^^ attacks viruses, parasites, and bacteria
cells are produced through the hematopoiesis
RBCs
WBCs
Platelets
steps of hemostasis
Vascular Spasm
Platelet Plug Formation
Coagulation
Vascular Spasm
Triggers: direct injury to vascular smooth muscle, chemicals released by endothelial cell and platelets, & reflexes initiated by local pain receptors
Platelet Plug Formation
Collagen fibers are exposed by break, platelets cling to the fibers and become “sticky” and release a chemical that attracts more platelets
Coagulation
Injured tissues release thromboplastin
PF3 (platelet factor 3) interact with thromboplastin, bld clotting factors, & Ca2+ to trigger a clotting cascade
Prothrombin activator…prothrombin → thrombin
Thrombin joins fibrinogen protein into hair-like fibrin
Formed elements:
Cellular portion of bld
Plasma:
The nonliving fluid component of bld within which formed elements and various solutes are suspended and circulated
Erythrocytes:
RBC
Leukocytes:
WBC; formed elements involved in body protection that take part in inflammatory and immune responses
Platelets
Cell fragment found in bld; involved in clotting
Hematocrit
The percentage of total bld volume occupied by erythrocytes
Thrombocytopenia:
A reduction in the number of platelets circulating in the bld
Hemoglobin:
Oxygen transporting protein of eythrocytes
Hematopoiesis:
Bld cell formation; Hemopoiesis
Erythropoiesis:
Process of erythrocyte formation
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Hormone that stimulates production of RBC
Anemia
reduced oxygen-carrying ability of bld resulting from too few erythrocytes or abnormal hemoglobin
Antigen
A substance or part of a substance (living or nonliving) that is recognized as foreign by the immune system, activates the immune system, and reacts with immune cells or their products
Antibody:
A protein molecule that is released by a plasma cell (a daughter cell of an activated B lymphocyte) and that binds specifically to an antigen; an immunoglobulin
Diapedesis:
Passage of WBCs through intact vessel walls into tissue
Granulocytes:
type of WBC (Neutrophil, Basophil, Eosinophil)
Neutrophils:
Most abundant type of WBC
Basophils:
WBC whose granules stain purplish-black and nucleus purple with basic dye
Eosinophils:
Granular WBC whose granules readily take up an acid stain called eosin
Agranulocytes:
Type of WBC (lymphocyte and monocyte)
Lymphocytes:
Agranular WBC that arises from bone marrow and becomes functionally mature in the lymphoid organs of the body
Monocytes:
Large single-nucleus WBC; Agranular leukocyte
Agglutination
Clumping of (foreign) cells; induced by cross-linking of antigen-antibody complexes
Leukocytopenia (Leucopenia):
Abnormally low WBC count
Megakaryocytes
a large bone marrow cell with a lobulated nucleus responsible for the production of blood thrombocytes
Hemostasis:
Stoppage of bleeding/bld flow (due to a break in a bld vessel)
Coagulation:
Process in which bld is transformed from a liquid to a gel; bld clotting
Fibrin:
Fibrous insoluble protein formed during bld clotting
Fibrinogen:
A soluble bld protein that is converted to insoluble fibrin during bld clotting
P-
the period during which the atria are depolarizing
QRS-
the period during which the ventricles are depolarizing, which precedes their contraction
T-
the period during which the ventricles are repolarizing
Systole-
the contraction of the ventricles
Diastole
the period of ventricular relaxation
Cardiac cycle-
the heart chambers of the heart alternately contract & relax in a rhythmic cycle
Stroke volume
volume of blood pumped from the LVper beat
in the relationship CO = HR X SV, SV stands for stroke volume
For a normal heartbeat, the value of SV is 70 ml per beat
Cardiac output
the volume of blood being pumped by the heart (by ech side of the heart such as LV/RV), per min
in the relationship CO = HR X SV, CO stands for cardiac output
Average cardiac output for a resting adult
5250 ml beat per min
Starling’s law
the more the cardiac muscle is stretched; the stronger the contraction)
the critical factor that determines the force of heartbeat, or stroke volume, is the degree of stretch of the cardiac muscle just before it contracts. Consequently, the force of heartbeat can be increased by increasing the amount of blood returned to the heart
location of the heart in the body
The heart lies anterior to the vertebral column and posterior to the sternum
List the layers of the heart itself and its coverings
Pericardium **serous fluid is found between the layers** Visceral cardium Parietal cardium Epicardium Myocardium Endocardium
Arteries-
are large and carry blood away from the heart
Arterioles-
are medium and carry blood away from the heart
Veins
are large and carry blood to the heart
Venules
are medium and carry blood to the heart
Capillaries
are small and carry blood to AND away from the heart
blood vessels
Different types
Vein
Artery
Capillaries
Arteries
Smaller lumen Elastic connective tissue Larger tunica media Blood pumped by heart 3 layers Carry blood
Veins
Bigger lumen
Have valves
“Milking” action of the skeletal muscle to return blood
Capillaries
Bridge
carry oxygenated
All arteries carry oxygenated blood, except the pulmonary artery
deoxygenated blood
All veins carry deoxygenated blood, except the pulmonary vein
Blood Vessels
Gas exchange occurs at the alveoli of the lungs (alveolar membrane)
The pulmonary arteries and veins connect the heart and the lungs
Define heart block
Double layered sac enclosing the heart and forming its superficial layer; has fibrous and serous layers
Pericarditis:
inflammation of the pericardium
Myocardium
Layer of the heart wall composed of cardiac muscle
Endocardium:
endothelial membrane that lines the interior of the heart
Atria:
the two superior receiving chambers of the heart
Ventricle:
Paired, inferiorly located heart chambers that function as the major blood pumps
Interatrial septum:
separates the left and right atria
Interventricular septum:
separates the two ventricles
Atrioventricular valves
Valves located btwn the atrial and ventricular chambers on each side of the heart, prevent backflow into the atria when the ventricles are contracting
Tricuspid valves
right atrioventricular valve
Bicuspid valves
the valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle of the heart, consisting of two tapered cusps
Chordae tendineae:
thin bands of fibrous tissue that attach to the valves in the heart and prevent them from inverting
Aortic semilunar valves:
located between the left ventricle and the aorta
Pulmonary semilunar valves:
valve situated between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery, which guards the base of the pulmonary trunk and prevents backflow of blood into the right ventricle
Coronary arteries:
supply oxygen-rich blood to the myocardium
Cardiac veins:
drain the myocardium of blood
Coronary sinus:
enlarged vessel on the posterior aspect of the heart that empties blood into the right atrium
Angina pectoris:
chest pain, resulting from ischemia of the myocardium (heart doesn’t have enough oxygen)
Myocardial infarction
heart attack
Sinoatrial node (pacemaker):
specialized myocardial cells in the wall of the right atrium; pacemaker of the heart
Atrioventricular node:
The secondary pacemaker controlling the heartbeat
Purkinje fibers:
fibers in the ventricles that transmit impulses to the right and left ventricles, causing them to contract
Systole:
the contraction of the ventricles
Diastole:
the period of ventricular relaxation
Fibrillation:
a condition in which the heart is uncoordinated and useless as a pump (chaotic, irregular contractions of the heart, as in atrial or ventricular fibrillation)
Cardiac cycle:
one complete heartbeat
Heart sounds:
Lub-dub. 1st- a-v valves close. 2nd- aortic and pulmonary valves close
Murmurs:
an extra sound to a heart beat
Cardiac output:
the vol of blood being pumped by the heart (by ech side of the heart such as LV/RV), per min
Stroke volume:
The amount of blood ejected from the heart in one contraction
Congestive heart failure:
heart is unable to pump its required amount of blood
Atrioventricular bundle:
a bundle of modified heart muscle that transmits the cardiac impulse from the atrioventricular node to the ventricles causing them to contract
Menses:
functional layer of the endometrium is sloughed (stage of menstrual cycle)
Menopause:
the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines
Embryo:
the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month
Fetus:
the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
Interstitial cells:
in the testes, these cells lie between the seminiferous tubules and produce the hormone testosterone
Spermatogonia:
cells produced at an early stage in the formation of spermatozoa, formed in the wall of a seminiferous tubule and giving rise by mitosis to spermatocytes
Braxton Hicks contractions:
intermittent painless uterine contractions that occur with increasing frequency as the pregnancy progresses or false labor/contractions of the uterus
LH
Male- Stimulates testosterone production
Female- Regulates when mature egg is released from ovaries in (process AKA ovulation)
Progesterone
Produced by the corpus luteum
Production continues until LH diminishes in the blood
Helps maintain pregnancy
Estrogen
Produced by follicle cells
Cause secondary sex characteristics
FSH
Stimulates the growth of follicles in the ovaries; helps regulate the menstrual cycle (produced by pituitary gland)
Process of spermatogenesis
64-72 Days
Beginning of spermatogenesis:
abt 14 y/o (and often earlier)
Beginning of oogenesis:
during pd until menopause
Period of gestation:
From last pd until birth (approx. 280 days)
Time of ovulation
less than 5 minutes
The egg is viable and capable of fertilization
No more than 2 days after ovulation and no later than 24 hrs after
Uterine tube
Connects the ovaries to the uterus allowing the transportation of the ova from the ovary to the uterus
Seminiferous tubules:
Network of coiled tubes where sperm are produced by meiosis
Testes:
Produces sperm and testosterone
Seminal vesicles
A pair of glands located underneath the bladder - they produce a thick fluid made up of fructose, which provides energy that the sperm need to survive
Bulbourethral glands
2 small glands located beneath the prostate. These glands secrete a fluid that help sperm survive the acidic environment of the vagina
Prostate gland
Produces a thin, alkaline fluid that sperms move
Mammary glands:
Produce milk to nourish a newborn baby (important only when reproduction has already been accomplished)
Spermatic cord:
suspends the testes in the scrotum, provides a heat cooling system, and is a blood supply, lymphatics and nerves
Ductus deferens:
A tube that transports sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory ducts and the urethra
Alveolar glands:
clusters of milk producing glands within lobules
Uterus:
Implantation and embryo development
Components that make up semen
Sperm, and the fluids from the prostate gland, bulbourethral gland, and seminal vesicles
Optimum temperature
3C less than normal body temp. (37oC)
3 distinct parts
Acrosome, Head and Tail
When/where do primary oocytes exist
Ovaries… After Oogonia transforms into the primary oocyte after mitosis; primary oocyte begin the 1st meiotic division but become “stalled’ late in prophase I and do not complete it
When is a secondary oocytes made
After puberty when 2 haploid cells are formed. The larger cell is the second oocyte and contains nearly all of the cytoplasm of the primary oocyte
What are the three layers of the uterus from superficial to deep
Perimetrium
Myometrium
Endometrium
now the three stages of the uterine cycle
Menstrual:
Proliferative:
Secretory:
Menstrual
the functional layer of the endometrium is shed
Proliferative
the functional layer of the endometrium is rebuilt
Secretory
beings immediately after ovulation. Enrichment of the blood supply and glandular secretion of nutrients prepare the endometrium to receive an embryo
Know the three stages of labor
Dilation Cervix becomes dilated Uterine contractions begin and increase The amnion ruptures Expulsion Infant passes through the cervix and vagina Normal delivery is head first Placental stage Delivery of the placenta
