Kinesiology

Question 1

Joint Movement

Answer 1

The movement at a joint occurs in pairs of opposing movements. In other words, if the joint can move forward it can generally move backward, if it moves inward than it should also move outward. The bones that form the joint will move toward one another or away from one another during an action. Generally, there is a greater degree of range of motion available when the bones are moving toward one another than when they are moving away from one another. This arrangement creates a more stable musculoskeletal system.

The amount of movement will be determined by the natural length of the muscles, tendons crossing the joint, and shape of the bone itself. Bony opposition is when bony structure determines the limit of movement, such as the olecranon at the elbow. Some bones, such as the patella, actually help the joints to follow a track smoothly to increase range. Ligaments are particularly critical in limiting movement, so as to create stability in the skeletal system and to prevent hypermobility or excessive movement. Therefore, we must take into consideration all of these effects when we see an animal in movement and are trying to assess how the muscles may be affected.

Question 2

Types of Joint Movements:

Flexion and Extension

Answer 2

Flexion and Extension The most common pair of joint movements is flexion and extension. These joint movements are in opposition to one another. Picture an animal (or human) in the fetal position. All joints are in a state of flexion when in the fetal position. The opposite movement, exiting the fetal position, is extension. Here is another example; your elbow is in flexion when your arm is bent and in extension when your arm is straight.

• Flexion: Movement occurs in a sagittal plane and decreases the angle formed at the articulation of the bones. Flexion is the movement closing the joint, bringing two bones closer together, or decreasing the joint angle.
• Extension: Movement occurs in a sagittal plane and increases the angle formed at the articulation of the bones. Extension is the opening of the joint moving two bones apart or increasing the joint angle.

Question 3

Types of Joint Movements:

Abduction and Adduction

Answer 3

Abduction and Adduction Abduction and adduction apply to the relationship between the limbs and the body or mid-line. Adduction and abduction occur at the hip and shoulder.

• Abduction: Movement occurs in a transverse plane and takes the limb lateral or away from the midline of the body. Abduction means to take away, so abduction is the movement of the limb away from the mid-line of the body such as when you raise your arm to the side.
• Adduction: Movement occurs in a transverse plane and takes the limb medial or toward the midline of the body. Adduction means to add to the body, moving toward or even across the mid-line such as when you place your hand over your heart.

Question 4

Types of Joint Movements:

Lateral Flexion

Answer 4

Lateral Flexion This movement should not be confused with flexion described above. Lateral flexion describes flexion to one side and is specific to the axial skeleton, the spinal column, and skull.

Any portion of the midline, to varying degrees, can flex sideways, as in going around a curve or turning to scratch an itch. In this movement, muscles on one side of the body are contracting while the same muscles on the opposite side are lengthening to allow the movement. This is called unilateral action because the movement occurs to one side (uni = one).

Since the movement is also lateral flexion, it ends up a mouthful; unilateral lateral flexion. Unilateral lateral flexion is distinguished from bilateral flexion (generally called flexion) where the muscles on both sides are moving in tandem, not in opposition. In this textbook, we will use the word flexion to describe bilateral flexion and the term lateral flexion to describe unilateral lateral flexion, which is needlessly redundant. However, since you may see these terms used in other literature, we have taken the time to note them here. An example of bilateral flexion is when you lower your head and neck toward your chest.

Question 5

Types of Joint Movements:

Rotation

Answer 5

Rotation Rotation involves movement around an axis or point, like the lid of a jar. Rotation occurs along the spine at the facet joints. The neck is the most mobile aspect of the spine and the atlantoaxial joint between the first and second cervical is responsible for the greatest degree of rotation. The second cervical vertebrae, you will remember, is called the axis and has a finger-like projection around which the first cervical vertebrae can turn or rotate.

• Rotation: Movement occurs around the circumference of the joint creating a rolling motion. Rotation is limited in quadrupeds. It occurs along the spine and in the limbs

Question 6

Types of Joint Movements:

In the limbs, rotation is either internal (medial) or external (lateral).

Answer 6

• Internal Rotation (medial): When the front (cranial aspect) of the limb turns towards the mid-line. An example is when you look at your watch. The opposite movement is external or lateral rotation.
• External Rotation (lateral): When the cranial aspect of the limb rotates away from the midline. An example would include hitch-hiking.

Question 7

Joint Action:

Flexion

Answer 7

Movement Description:

Decreasing joint angle

Question 8

Joint Action:

Extension

Answer 8

Movement Description:

Increasing joint angle

Question 9

Joint Action:

Abduction

Answer 9

Movement Description:

Movement away from body midline

Question 10

Joint Action:

Adduction

Answer 10

Movement Description:

Movement toward body midline

Question 11

Joint Action:

Rotation

Answer 11

Movement Description:

Rotation about and axis

Question 12

Joint Action:

Circumduction

Answer 12

Movement Description:

Movements that create a complete circle (as opposed to a rotation of less than 360 degrees.) A joint that cab do flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and rotation

Question 13

Movements of the Canine Body:

Head and Neck

Answer 13

The head and neck are the most mobile aspect of the axial skeleton. Various factors can affect the health of the muscles in this region, including feeding habits, tooth structure, collars, and handling or conformation. Any of these items can cause an animal to adopt a posture which is more comfortable in the short-term, but inefficient for long-term performance.

Question 14

Movements of the Canine Body:

Head

Answer 14

The movements of the head: 
• Flexion 
• Extension 
• Lateral flexion 
• Rotation 

The first two joints of the cervical spine are responsible for the yes and no movements of the head. The greatest amount of flexion and extension occurs at the atlanto-occipital joint between the skull and first vertebrae (the “yes” movement). The greatest amount of rotation occurs at the atlantoaxial joint between the first and second vertebrae (the “no” movement).

Other muscular movements possible at the head include the movements of the jaw:

• Depression: Opening of the jaw • Elevation: Closing the jaw

There are also movements of the eyes and nose and a tremendous scope of movement at the ears.

Question 15

Movements of the Canine Body:

Neck

Answer 15

Neck movements occur at the articulations of the seven cervical vertebrae and the first thoracic vertebra.

The movements of the neck: 
• Flexion 
• Extension 
• Lateral flexion 
• Small degrees of rotation

A crucial aspect of the head and neck anatomy is the nuchal ligament. This ligament runs from the base of the skull to the area of the withers like a rope or cord. It is continuous with the supraspinous ligament which ends at the sacrum. It serves as an attachment site for several important muscles

Question 16

Movements of the Canine Body:

Shoulder and Forelimb

Answer 16

The muscling of the shoulder and forelimb along with the skeletal structure determine the quality of movement at the shoulder. As discussed earlier, the shoulder of the dog does not possess a clavicle or a shoulder girdle. Instead, a sling of soft tissue structures (muscles, tendons and ligaments) supports the scapula. This sling allows the shoulder to swing in a pendulum like fashion and to be supported between the two pillars formed by the legs like a hammock. Proper shoulder muscling should blend well with the neck and trunk. Excessive development in any one muscle or group of muscles may cause faulty movement or posture.

Question 17

Movements of the Canine Body:

Shoulder

Answer 17

While the human scapula lies along the back, the animal’s scapula lies along the sides of the ribcage. The shoulder movement is primarily: • Flexion • Extension

The shoulder has less range of motion in: • Abduction • Adduction • Internal rotation • External rotation

The gliding nature of the scapulothoracic joint allows minute degrees of movement in nondescript planes.

Question 18

Movements of the Canine Body:

Forelimb- Elbows, Wrists, Digits

Answer 18

Below the shoulder, the joints are primarily designed for: • Flexion • Extension

The smaller metacarpal bones and the sesamoids between the digits also allow for gliding movements to reduce friction and concussion.

Question 19

Movements of the Canine Body:

Trunk

Answer 19

Spine 
The joints along the spine are capable of: 
• Flexion 
• Extension 
• Some lateral flexion 
• Minimal amounts of rotation 

Back
The abdominal muscles are active participants in flexion of the back and are of extreme importance. The muscles above and between the ribs are also crucial to performance as they can assist or impede respiration.

Ribs
The ribs also move at the joints where they articulate with the vertebrae and the sternum. The ribcage can expand and compress and the rib heads can rotate within their facets (small articulations that look like a modified ball and socket).

• Inhalation: Expands and lifts the ribs
• Exhalation: Contracts and lowers the ribs

Question 20

Movements of the Canine Body:

Hindquarters

Answer 20

Hips 
The hip joint (also known as the coxal joint or the coxofemoral joint) is capable of these movements: 
• Flexion 
• Extension 
• Abduction 
• Adduction 
• Internal rotation 
• External rotation 

The hip joint also has the ability of circumduction, which includes the ability to do all of the joint movements mentioned above in a smooth fashion.

Pelvis
The muscles that reside deepest in the pelvis are responsible for preventing the joint from hyperflexion or hyperextension and store much of the proprioceptive information for the hindquarters.

Stifle, Hock, Pastern
The stifle, hock and pastern are all designed for:
• Flexion
• Extension

Tarsus
Gliding movements are available between the tarsal bones and the sesamoids

Question 21

Refer to Key Joints and Their Attributes chart

Answer 21

Refer to Key Joints and Their Attributes chart

Question 22

Refer to Intervertebral Joint Transition Zones chart

Answer 22

Refer to Intervertebral Joint Transition Zones chart

Question 23

Proprioception

Answer 23

Proprioception is the neurological training method the body uses to learn patterns of movement. It is sometimes called muscle memory, because the neurological patterns are observed through muscle movement. Specialized structures that serve the muscle are called proprioceptors; they provide information about the body’s orientation in and through space to the brain.

Proprioception is one of the most important concepts for body workers to grasp. It is this memory of movement contained in the soft tissues that can be deeply affected by massage. By altering the proprioceptive memory patterns in the body and teaching the body more efficient ways of moving we can make rapid and dramatic change in the body.

Consider the fact that any movement in the body creates movement throughout the body. The simple act of picking up a glass of water primarily involves the muscles of the arm and shoulder, but also requires adjustments in the neck and trunk to maintain balance. It is orchestrated throughout the body as it adapts to the new positioning. It is dependent on the weight of the glass, whether you are standing or sitting and even where you are focusing visually.

Picture a toddler who has just begun to learn this skill…often they are unable to judge the weight of the glass or the direction it needs to take to get from the table to their mouths. Over time, the child masters the orchestrated movements necessary to effortlessly lift and drink from a glass and also to make educated guesses about the required movements for different types of objects…picking up a toy or a book versus a glass.

Question 24

Three Proprioceptive Components

Answer 24

• Golgi Tendon Organ:
The Golgi tendon organ (GTO) is located in the area of the muscle where the tendon fibers are becoming as dense as or denser than the muscle fibers known as the musculotendinous junction. The GTO specifically measures the speed of contraction and loads so that it can trigger the muscle to shutdown in the face of overload. For example, this is often seen in marathon running when an exhausted runner, maybe only steps away from the finish, collapses as the muscles of the legs shut down to prevent fatal overheating.

• Muscle Spindle Fiber:
The second nerve type is the muscle spindle fibers (MSF) located throughout the muscle belly. Spindle fibers extend perpendicularly into the muscle fibers from the peripheral nerves. Similar to a trigger wire it contracts the muscle forcefully when excited by a sudden or powerful stimulus. For example, when an object is placed in someone’s hand and the object is much heavier than expected the bicep muscle contracts strongly and immediately to bear the load and prevent tearing of the muscle or tendon.
Together these two nerves act as the on/off switch in the muscle at the extremes of effort. The majority of the time they interact to assist the gradual and ever-changing balance of contraction and relaxation that allows for smoother movement. When acting in cooperation with the connective tissue system, these nerves provide subtle cues to the muscles regarding performance needs. They are critical both to balance and to smooth, coordinated movement.

• Connective Tissue Matrix
The connective tissue matrix is the fluid found between the cells of the body. It is a dynamic mix of proteins and lipids in a solution of water and salts that responds to pressure by creating an electromagnetic wave. The nature of this solution is conductive and the components that give cells energy float in this nutritive bath waiting to be excited chemically and carried to the cells. This exchange occurs on many levels and through several pathways in the body, not the least of which is the fascial network. It is this constant biochemical interaction which assists the nervous system in sending messages between the brain and body and facilitates coordinated and efficient movement.

As massage practitioners it is possible to access these neural triggers to create change in or interrupt the muscle memory and replace existing proprioceptive information with better information. It is also valuable to be able to recognize when a pattern of movement or posture is interfering with the proper function of the proprioceptors. Then massage can be used to gradually tease the tissues back to an appropriate posture and stimulate the proprioceptive system through the connective tissues

Question 25

Conformation

Answer 25

Conformation is defined as the size, shape and spatial relationship of the various structures of the body that determines the appearance and the style of movement or ‘way of going’ of an animal. It is also a set of defined standards for a specific breed used to evaluate the structure of the dog in terms of its suitability for a specific task and its approximation to ideal for that breed.

As you can see, conformation is a term used to describe the way an animal is built and its appearance from the outside. However, the concept of conformation can vary depending on if you are viewing the dog as a species or as a specific breed. From an anatomical viewpoint ideal conformation is the kind of structural build that maximizes efficiency of movement and facilitates the best function of all the systems, in this case, the wolf or feral dog tends to have ideal conformation. From the standpoint of a show judge or a breeder, ideal conformation is determined by a set of standards that consider the task for which the breed is designed and the type of structure that is most visually appealing. These two views may or may not conflict. For example, the high stepping movement of the miniature pinscher is very desirable according to breed standards for its appearance, although it is highly inefficient. Generations of selection and breeding adapt a breed to display such features with, hopefully, minimal disruption to function. But, take a population of dogs of various breeds carefully selected for various looks and abilities and allow them to breed without manipulation and in several generations and you will be back to the example of a typical feral dog; medium build, smallish head with medium length of nose, brownish coat of medium length and tending toward coarse with a level line along the top of the body and lean musculature. So, the dog as a species is predisposed to a conformation that is efficient and, well, average. However, with over 400 breeds of dogs for us to view, we can see that the variety of shapes, sizes, and structures that we will encounter as massage practitioners will be far from average or typical.

Is it necessary to study every breed standard in order to determine how best to massage each animal? No, thankfully. It is possible to evaluate the conformation of any dog based on some common principles. However, if you find that your practice tends toward a certain breed or type of dog than you may wish to become better informed about that breed’s specific set of standards.

As massage practitioners, we are generally concerned with ways to minimize stress on the dog’s musculoskeletal system and help them feel comfortable and relaxed. If the animal does not possess good conformation then we may be limited by that in terms of the amount of relief we can provide. If we see that an animal has excellent conformation, but is still moving awkwardly or with discomfort or is, in other ways, unable to function to their full potential, then we can rule out conformational problems and focus on postural deviations, behavioral considerations, or issues caused by injury or aging, among other things.

Question 26

Conformation vs. Posture

Answer 26

Conformation must not be confused with posture, although they do influence one another. Conformation is the structure that the animal was born with. It may be affected over time by wear or by trauma, but it is essentially unchangeable. Posture on the other hand is a chosen stance or way of moving or standing, sitting, or laying. Postures are adopted as a result of conformation or environmental factors. A dog with good conformation will tend toward good posture, but may adopt poor posture as a result of abuse or malnutrition or any number of other factors. A dog with poor conformation is likely to also have poor posture and have a harder time correcting that posture. Posture, however, will not change the underlying conformation of an animal, although it may have long term deleterious effects

Question 27

Conformation Evaluation:

Balance

Answer 27

Specifically, an animal needs to have good balance. In most cases, balance is characterized by:

• A normal weight distribution of about 60 percent in the forequarter and 40 percent in the hindquarter.
• A shoulder angulation of between 30-45 degrees (measured on the vertical)
• A pelvic angulation of between 30-45 degrees (measured on the horizontal)
• A balanced and straight front assembly
• A balanced and straight hind assembly

Question 28

Conformation Evaluation:

Shoulder Angulation

Answer 28

Shoulder angulation is the slope of the scapula as it lays on the ribcage. It can be determined in a variety of ways.

Draw a line from the tip of T2 (second thoracic vertebrae) along the spine of the scapula and a similar line from the same point of origin (T2) to the ground. This will describe a slope equal to the angle formed.

• Excessive angulation will have a negative effect on joint stability and will lead to a lack of endurance as the animal expends too much energy with each step. Too much slope in the angles creates sloppy, loose movement and stresses the soft tissues.
• Steep angulation (too upright) results in shorter steps that can be concussive and jarring to the bony structures.

Any degree between these ranges can lead to a variety of gait characteristics including speed, degree of action and stability.

Question 29

Conformation Evaluation:

Pelvic Angulation

Answer 29

Pelvic angulation is measured by drawing an imaginary line from the point of haunch through the point of buttock. Compare this to an imaginary line along the horizon of the back.

Good angulation will result in an effortless stride and smooth action. The shoulder joint and the hip joint must counterbalance one another as the dog is moving.

• Excessive angulation will have a negative effect on joint stability and will lead to a lack of endurance as the animal expends too much energy with each step. Too much slope in the angles creates sloppy, loose movement and stresses the soft tissues.
• Steep angulation (too upright) results in shorter steps that can be concussive and jarring to the bony structures.

Any degree between these ranges can lead to a variety of gait characteristics including speed, degree of action and stability.

Question 30

Conformation Evaluation:

Front Assembly

Answer 30

Front assembly includes the shoulder and limb and is measured by looking at the dog from the front.

Viewed from the front the legs should appear to support the width of the chest. They should not be set too far out from the chest or too far underneath the dog resulting in a narrow or pinched appearance through the chest. Each limb should be divisible into equal left and right halves with no obvious asymmetries within the leg. The elbows, carpals and pasterns should be level from left to right. The legs should not be bowed inward or outward. Some common faults include feet that turn away from one another (commonly called Easty-Westy conformation as often seen in the Bassett Hound), pasterns or carpals that knuckle over and elbows that stick out (such as is often seen in the Bulldog).

Question 31

Conformation Evaluation:

Rear Assembly

Answer 31

Rear assembly includes the hip and limb and is measured by looking at the dog from the hind and the side.

• From behind, the limbs should fall in a nice line from the point of the buttock to the ground and the legs should be divisible into equal left and right halves. The hocks should not incline toward one another too much (cow-hocked) or bow outward away from one another. This places uneven stress on the inside or outside of the hock respectively.
• When viewed from the side, the hock should not have a sickle-like appearance, causing the dog to move with the legs out behind themselves. The pasterns should not appear broken down or sunken.

Question 32

Conformation Evaluation:

Foot Shape

Answer 32

Even foot shape contributes to efficiency and should be considered when examining conformation. Round feet (cat shaped) are good for endurance while oval feet (with an elongated third digit) contribute to speed and jumping while maintaining endurance. Some breeds have webbed feet to handle specific terrain such as water or snow.

Question 33

Conformation Evaluation:

Additional Conformation Characteristics

Answer 33

Most breed books will provide specific information regarding the conformational characteristics most suitable for the breed including:

• Height
• Length of back
• Tail carriage
• Shape and set of the head
• Limb angulation
• Type of coat
• Shape of the ears

Question 34

How to Assess Conformation

Answer 34

1. To begin evaluating conformation, look at the animal standing squarely on level ground.
2. View the dog from the side for overall appearance. It helps to stand a fair distance and use a soft eye (slightly unfocused) to get a generalized picture.
3. Is there anything that stands out to you or seems out of sync or distracting? (large head, protruding hip or shoulder.)
4. View from the front and from the back.

Now you can begin to break the animal down into sections. Start by dividing the body into three equal parts. The first will be the head, neck and shoulder. The second will be from the withers through the barrel to just in front of the stifle. The last will be from the stifle back.

So, what are we looking for when we do this?

1. A dog or cat should be balanced on all four limbs. A balanced dog will have a body that appears to blend smoothly from one part to the next.
2. Check for the characteristic we listed before regarding the shoulder and pelvis. Check the asymmetry of the left and right sides of the body. Bones should be the same length on both sides.
3. Assess the limbs for symmetry from the front, side and back.
4. From the side, the joints should fall into a line in the forelimb.
5. In the hind limb, a line dropped from the point of the hip should bisect the paw with a straight line from the hock to the pastern.
6. All four pasterns should exhibit a moderately sloping angle for shock absorption that is not stiff and upright or sloppy and over bent.

Question 35

Gait Analysis

Answer 35

Gait analysis involves watching the animal moving freely or under the control of a handler to get a sense of their comfort and ease while moving. This information will help us to further explore postures or muscular tensions that are causing the animal to move in a less than ideal manner. It is easiest to observe the dog at the walk and trot, but in addition to these two gaits you will also see the amble, pace, canter, and gallop.

A dog with quality gaits is more efficient and will maintain soundness longer with less stress on the system. Poor movement is inefficient, uncomfortable for the animal and the observer and will most certainly contribute to a breakdown in the health of the muscular system.

Poor movement is sometimes a case of poor conformation and the effects of massage, while helpful, will be limited to short-term relief. More often, poor movement is a case of improper training or handling, poor posture or existing muscular stress or weakness. In these cases, the appropriate massage techniques will be among the most valuable tool in restoring health and fitness.

Foot placement within any gait can follow a single track or a double track formation.

• Traveling on a single track means that all four feet contact the ground on a single line, like a ropewalker, and may benefit high speed activities.
• Traveling on a double track (wider stance) allows for greater degrees of agility, changes in direction, and changes in speed.

Regardless of foot placement, gaits should appear fluid and straight with all four paws following a path that is the same distance away from the body. The head and neck should move freely and the joints should demonstrate full range of motion. A dog should demonstrate good reach (the outward extension of the front legs at the trot) and good drive (the backward extension of the rear legs at the trot).

Question 36

Gait Analysis:

Four Phases of the Stride

Answer 36

All gaits are measured in a unit called a stride. One stride is equal to the time it takes all four legs to pass through the normal footfall pattern of the gait. When the pattern begins again, this is the start of the next stride. In addition to understanding and being able to observe a stride, we should also be able to distinguish what each individual leg is doing during a stride. Each leg passes through four stages during the course of one stride. Understanding these phases will help in the overall analysis of the gait.

1. Swing Phase: First, the leg must flex and swing forward.
2. Contact Phase: As the leg makes contact with the ground.
3. Support Phase: This is followed by a phase when the leg is weight bearing.
4. Thrust Phase: Lastly the leg pushes away from the ground and then begins the cycle once more.

The reason it is important to know the phases of the stride and the foot placement within the gait is that any deviation from these phases or patterns will cause a change in the quality of the gait.

Question 37

Gait Analysis:

Other Gait Characteristics

Answer 37

There are other factors that help to determine the quality of a gait. Three of the most important factors are rhythm, impulsion and balance.

Rhythm (aka Cadence)
A good rhythm is consistent and regular with clear distinction between footfalls. Proper rhythm helps maintain the steady character of the gait so it is not increasing or decreasing in tempo or impulsion. Impulsion initiates rhythm, and rhythm maintains impulsion.

Impulsion
Impulsion is thrust or energy in forward motion. Impulsion should not be confused with speed. Faster does not necessarily mean greater impulsion. Impulsion implies a willingness to move with power.

Balance
Balance is dynamic control of weight bearing. A balanced dog can make the necessary adjustments to carry his weight without affecting the rhythm of the gait or breaking the pattern of the footfalls.

If the dog exhibits good balance, impulsion, and rhythm in a gait, then it will most likely exhibit the other elements that contribute to a high quality gait; straightness, freedom, and lightness. To obtain these qualities, an animal cannot have muscular restrictions that impede efficient contraction and relaxation of the muscles. Whether we are watching a greyhound racer or a show dog we can use these principles to determine the quality of the gaits.

Question 38

Gait Analysis:

Types of Gaits

Answer 38

The individual gaits are described below. We will also discuss the best way in which to observe the gaits. Lastly, we have included a form that allows you to record what you see as you are evaluating both the conformation and the gait.

The Walk (4 beat) 
The walk should have a regular, even beat. The walk should be heard as four distinct beats or steps. The limbs move laterally starting with the hind leg. For instance, left hind followed by the left fore (front) followed by the right hind and lastly the right fore. While a leg is swinging, the body is balanced over the triangular support created by the other three legs.  

The Amble (fast walk) 
The amble is a fast walk in which the dog rocks from side to side. The four beats are irregular because the legs on each side are nearly moving simultaneously. This is common to some breeds, but also often seen as the dog is preparing to move into a trot from a walk or if the dog is wanting to trot but the handler is moving too slowly to allow it. 

The Pace (lateral gait) 
The pace is generally considered a fault except in breeds that select for it, such as the old English sheep dog. The pace is a form of the trot in which the legs on one side of the body move as a pair. This is called a lateral gait. The dog will rock visibly from side to side. A dog may elect to pace if they have stiffness or pain in the back that does not allow them to freely shift their weight across their body. Some dogs will trot properly on a straight line, but pace if they have to turn or move at a faster rate. 

The Trot (diagonal gait) 
The trot is a two-beat gait in which a front and hind leg on opposite sides of the body move together. This is called a diagonal gait and the pair of legs in motion is called the diagonal pair. The beat should be regular and marching. There is a brief moment of suspension between the swing of the two pairs in which the dog is moving through the air. Variations of the trot include the hackney trot seen in miniature pinschers and some poodles where the front legs are carried high in flexion. The head and neck are carried high as if prancing. The flying trot is a fast trot with an extended reach that gives the dog the appearance of floating through the air and covers ground efficiently. Herding dogs and shepherd dogs often display the flying trot. 

The Canter (3 beat) 
The canter is a three-beat gait. Two legs move independently while the other two move as a pair. If the dog initiates the canter off of the right hind leg, then the diagonal pair of the left hind and right fore will make up the second beat of the gait and the left fore will be the last beat. Because the left fore leads the body in this case, we would say the dog is cantering on its left lead. The footfall pattern would be reversed in the case of the right lead canter. 

The Gallop (4 beat) 
Like the walk, the gallop is a four beat gait. The footfall pattern is similar to the canter, but the diagonal pair contacts the ground at slightly different times. The gallop has a moment of suspension which can be lesser or greater depending on the size and shape of the dog and the speed of travel.

Question 39

Gait Analysis:

Follow these steps to perform a gait analysis:

Answer 39

1. Have a handler walk the dog several times back and forth over a flat non-skid surface. Then have them do the same at the trot.
2. Observe the dog as it comes toward you, from the side, and going away from you. Watch for the following characteristics:

a. Fluidity or ease of movement
b. Reach and drive
c. Foot placement d. Straightness
e. Symmetry
f. Joint flexibility
g. Free use of head and neck

3. Observe the dog moving at a walk and then a trot on a circle. Watch for the following characteristics:

a. Symmetry from left to right
b. Does the back follow the bend of the circle
c. Fluidity or ease of movement
d. Inside hind leg should step forward underneath the dog

4. Observe the dog moving at a walk on a figure eight. Watch for the following characteristics:

a. Change of direction is fluid b. Body bends through the change of direction c. Free use of head/neck
d. Movement is coordinated e. Foot placement does not cross over

Question 40

Gait Analysis:

Common Faults Seen in Gaits

Answer 40

• Moving stiffly (no bend through back, poor tracking)
• Change of rhythm throughout the gait
• Loss of power behind (common with cow-hocked dogs)
• Moving crookedly through any part of the body
• Crossing the hind legs (common when hocks bow out)
• Paddling or crossing in front (common with Easty-Westy or toed-out conformation)
• Joint laxity (specifically at the pasterns or in the hip) resulting in sloppy movement

Question 41

Common Disorders of the Limbs:

Overview

Answer 41

Ideally, the use of preventative therapies combined with proper handling and training will help to avoid injuries. Nonetheless few animals will escape suffering the occasional strain or minor tear and many will require rehabilitation for a wide variety of more serious problems. Therefore, it is valuable for the massage practitioner to be able to recognize and differentiate limb faults and injuries as well as whether they are recent or old, acute or chronic. Remember, you should be prepared to recognize the presence of an injury, but never diagnose or treat one!

Dogs suffer from a number of inherited or environmental conditions that require proper attention. Any time a guardian is describing symptoms or you observe irregularities in a dog it is wise to take a conservative approach. If you have any suspicion of injury or disease (such as hip dysplasia) it is your responsibility to suggest the owner seek veterinary counsel. Massage can be a valuable part of a recovery plan, but should never be considered a substitute for proper veterinary care.

When providing massage for an animal that is ill or injured, remember that the best benefit of the massage will be in facilitating the natural healing properties of the body. Specific rehabilitative massage is not covered in this level of the course and requires advanced training. However, maintenance massage can be of great use to animals as they are recovering to help alleviate the stress and boredom associated with confinement and to support the body in the healing process. To learn more about these conditions and others in detail and the advanced massage techniques to address them you may be interested in taking our Level 300 rehabilitation massage program.

Now, we will discuss four of the most common limb disorders seen in dogs.

• Hip dysplasia
• Osteochondrosis Dessicans
• Patellar Luxation
• Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries

Question 42

Common Disorders of the Limbs:

Hip Dysplasia

Answer 42

Hip dysplasia is an irregular formation of the coxofemoral joint. In hip dysplasia, either the socket of the joint is too shallow to contain the ball (head of the femur) or the joint has tremendous laxity. In both cases the hypermobile joint causes wear and tear on the edges of the articular cartilages and sparks a degenerative process. Dysplasia is most common at the hip, but occasionally occurs at the elbow.

Hip dysplasia is one of the most common orthopedic maladies affecting dog breeds today. The condition is inherited and the symptoms may appear at any age. Larger breeds are more susceptible although hip dysplasia affects dogs of any mix, breed, or size. Responsible breeding is the first step to eradicating hip dysplasia. Animals that are identified as carriers or produce dysplastic litters should be removed from the breeding pool and their offspring should be neutered or spayed to prevent passing the gene along. Unfortunately many breeders do not take these steps and many puppies are not discovered as carriers or victims until they have been sold.

Symptoms
• Reluctance to engage in normal activities.
• Difficulty getting up and down.
• Running with both hind limbs together.
• Attitude change associated with discomfort.
• Difficulty or pain when climbing or jumping.
• Pain or difficulty during backward extension range of motion testing for the hind limb.

Treatment
If hip dysplasia is suspected or a known family history is present, a dog should have radiographs and a veterinarian exam performed. Early detection will provide the most treatment options and the best chance for recovery.

Massage
Massage should not be recommended if a dog is exhibiting the above symptoms until after a veterinary exam is performed. Massage can be an excellent tool to aid recovery during postoperative rehabilitation and will be valuable as an ongoing therapy to maintain flexibility and muscle strength.

Question 43

Common Disorders of the Limbs:

Osteochondrosis

Answer 43

Osteochondrosis occurs when the articular cartilage or growth plate exhibits pocks or areas of decreased mineralization. Commonly called OCD (not to be confused with obsessive compulsive disorder) this condition can occur in any joint, but is most often seen in the shoulder or stifle.

Symptoms
Lesions may cause chronic or transient lameness. Often, no symptoms are seen until a trauma or other event occurs that stresses the weakened area. In later stages, the articular cartilage frays or cracks. Symptoms may improve with mild exercise, but tend to worsen when the dog is either rested or exercise increases.

Treatment
Both scenarios are best treated surgically.

Massage
Massage can be a valuable tool on the rehabilitation process and as an ongoing therapy to maintain fitness and flexibility.

Question 44

Common Disorders of the Limbs:

Patellar Luxation

Answer 44

Patellar luxation is when the patella tracks incorrectly, moving either lateral or medial to the trochlear groove of the distal femur. Patellar luxation is common in dogs who also suffer from hip dysplasia and the two can contribute to the progression of one another

Symptoms
The degree and severity of the luxation will vary. In early or mild stages, the dog may occasionally carry a hind leg while moving and the luxation may be self correcting. As the condition worsens the dog will spend less and less time weight bearing on the affected leg as the luxation becomes more permanent.

Treatment
Early detection is critical to successful treatment and recovery. Any suspicion of knee abnormalities warrants a veterinarian examination. Usually both limbs are affected, so a dog symptomatic in one leg should have both checked.

Massage
Massage should not be recommended if a dog is exhibiting the above symptoms until after a veterinary exam is performed. Massage can be an excellent tool for strengthening in nonsurgical candidates and as a rehabilitative tool after surgery to maintain flexibility and muscle strength.

Question 45

Common Disorders of the Limbs:

Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries

Answer 45

ACL injuries are defined as when the anterior cruciate ligament of the knee is torn or ruptures causing instability, inflammation and joint deterioration. Ligament ruptures are commonly caused by trauma, but may also be the result of repetitive stress on the anterior knee or of poor conformation that predisposes the dog to the condition.

Symptoms
Lameness may be severe with pain and swelling at the joint or the dog may be asymptomatic. Undetected tears can lead to degenerative joint conditions. Some lameness improves with rest, but in later years arthritis occurs.

Treatment
Surgical stabilization is successful in many dogs. The type of surgery will depend on the extent of the surgery. A post-operative massage program will be beneficial, but should be discussed with the veterinarian to assure that joint stability is maintained.

Massage
Massage should not be recommended if a dog is exhibiting the above symptoms until after a veterinary exam is performed. Massage can be an excellent tool for strengthening in nonsurgical candidates and as a rehabilitative tool after surgery to maintain flexibility and muscle strength

Question 46

Common Disorders of the Limbs:

Arthritis, Strain, or Sprains

Answer 46

Other common disorders include:

• Arthritis of any joint
• Strain in a tendon causing tendonitis
• Sprains of other soft tissue elements

The injury should be diagnosed by a veterinarian before massage is provided anytime pain and/or heat are present along with swelling. Massage is a benefit in arthritic cases, but should adhere to a prescriptive plan.