Kin 101 Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
What is the Endocardium?
A
Layer of endothelial cells
2
Q
What is the Myocardium?
A
Cardiac muscle
3
Q
What is the Epicardium?
A
External membrane
4
Q
What is a Myocardial muscle cell?
A
They are branched, have a single nucleus and are attached by specialized junctions known as inter calculated discs
5
Q
What is the heart fused to?
A
The diaphragm
6
Q
What is inside the heart sac?
A
Pericardial fluid; allowing for lubrication for heart to operate friction free
7
Q
What is an Echocardiogram?
A
It is a test of the action of the heart using ultrasound waves to produce a visual display, used for the diagnosis or monitoring of heart disease
8
Q
Why is the right ventricle so much thinner than the left?
A
Because the left ventricle pumps blood for all the parts and tissues of the body and hence, need thicker walls for more work that needs to be done
9
Q
What’s another name for Mitral Valve?
A
Bicuspid Valve
10
Q
Do valves create one way flow through the heart?
A
Yes, even preventing flow during relaxation
11
Q
What makes the valves open and close?
A
Pressure differences
12
Q
What do coronary vessels do for the heart?
A
They supply and drain the anterior and posterior surface of the heart
13
Q
There are three cuspid valve leaflets, what are they?
A
Left and right coronary leaflets, and non-coronary cuspid valve
14
Q
What are the two main parts of the Systemic Circulation?
A
Arteries and Veins
15
Q
Do arteries carry oxygenated blood or deoxygenated blood?
A
Oxygenated blood
16
Q
Do veins carry oxygenated blood or deoxygenated blood?
A
Deoxygenated blood
17
Q
What is Ohm’s Law formula?
A
Flow = Δ Pressure / Resistance
18
Q
What is the Physiological Equivalent of Ohm’s Law?
A
Q = MAP / TPR
19
Q
What does Q stand for?
A
Cardiac Output
20
Q
What does MAP stand for?
A
Mean Arterial Pressure
21
Q
What does TPR stand for?
A
Total Peripheral Resistance
22
Q
What is the definition of Cardiac Output?
A
The amount of blood leaving the Ventricles every Minute
22
Q
What is the definition of Mean Arterial Pressure?
A
Outward Pressure exerted on the walls of blood vessels (arteries/arterioles)
23
Q
What is Total Peripheral Resistance?
A
Total resistance of all the blood vessels most impacted by arterioles
24
What is the mean blood pressure in the systemic circulation?
93 mm Hg in the aorta to a low of a 'few' in the vena cava
25
What is Vasodilation?
Radius increases, resistance decreases and therefore meaning the blood flow can increase
26
What determines resistance in the heart?
The radius of the blood vessels
27
What is Vasoconstriction?
Radius decreases, resistance increases and therefore meaning the blood flow can decrease
28
What does resistance oppose?
Flow due to friction; meaning that if resistance increase flow does the opposite
29
Resistance increases as long as... (L, n, and r)
L and η increase, and r decreases
length, viscosity, and radius
30
What are Authorythmic cells?
Serve as a pacemaker to initiate the cardiac cycle, helping with contraction
31
Depolarizations of Authorythmic cells allow for what?
Signals to be spread rapidly to adjacent contractile cells through gap junctions
32
What allows for blood to move upward from the apex of the heart?
Spiral arrangement of ventricular muscles
33
What are inter calculated discs?
Contain desmosome and gap junctions that allow for a transfer of force and electrical signals from cell to cell
34
Why does wringing occur?
Spiral arrangement of cardiac muscle tissue
35
What are desmosomes?
Strong protein that surround sarcomeres and bind to neighbouring sarcomeres allowing force to transfer
36
What are Gap Junctions?
Electrical connections are transmitted rapidly via these protein pores to get synchronous contraction
37
Cardiac muscle is different from skeletal muscle because of what?
Distinctive short rectangular shape, as well as contains single nucleus fibres
38
Does Cardiac muscle depend on Ca2+
Only partially depends on extracellular Ca
39
In Cardiac muscle what is specific about the t-tubular network?
allows for rapid, synchronous, excitation-contraction coupling
40
What is the ratio of mitochondria in Cardiac muscle?
1/3 of the Volume
41
What are the steps of Action Potential in a cardiac contractile cell?
1. Na+ channels open
2. Na+ channels close
3. Ca2+ channels open; fast K+ close
4. Ca2+ close; slow K+ open
5. Resting Potential
42
What is force generated by the heart muscle proportional to?
Active cross bridges determined by how much calcium is bound to troponin
43
How long does the refractory period last? and was is a refractory period?
A period immediately following stimulation during which a nerve or muscle is unresponsive to further stimulation, and lasts almost as long as an entire muscle twitch
44
What does a long refractory period prevent?
Tetanus
45
Force generated by skeletal muscle is proportional to what?
Frequency of stimulations
46
The refractory period in skeletal muscle is?
Very short
47
Tetanus and fused tetanus build tension and summation which determines the level of tension that is in what kind of muscle?
Skeletal muscle
48
Excitation-Contraction Coupling in Cardiac Muscle is what?
The processes relating to electrical excitation through force generation and contraction in the heart
49
What does sarcomere length affect?
Force of contraction
50
The pacemaker potential gradually becomes what..until it reaches its potential triggering what?
Less negative, and action potential
51
Membrane potential never rests and at a constant value its called a?
Pacemaker potential
52
Ion movement during action and pacemaker potential has what contributing to depolarization?
Na+ and Ca+
53
What are If channels also referred to as?
Funny current channels
54
What is Ejection Fraction?
Ejection fraction is the percentage of EDV ejected with a single contraction
55
How can we increase stroke volume?
Increase end diastolic volume; preload and increase ejection fraction; contractility
56
What is the pulse rate?
Time in between pressure waves in an artery
57
What type of pressure is the highest in ventricles and arteries? occurs during ventricular systole
Systolic Pressure
58
What type of pressure is the lowest in ventricles and arteries? occurs during ventricle diastole
Diastolic Pressure
59
What is the difference between the high and low pressures called?
Pulse Pressure
60
Each wave (pointy part) or segment (flat part) on an ECG represents...
a corresponding electrical event in the cardiac cycle.
61
What is heart rate in terms of waves?
The time between two r waves and p waves
p-r conduction through AV node and AV bundle
62
In heart rate what events proceed the mechanical events?
Electrical
63
Electrical events of the cardiac cycle...
- P-Q or P-R segment conduction through AV node and AV bundle
- Then the R wave
- Then the t wave ventricle repolarization
64
What does a normal ECG consist of?
Waves - above or below baseline
Segments - Sections of baselines between waves
Intervals - combinations of waves and segments
65
In autonomic control what does the parasympathetic control do?
Decreases heart rate, each on muscarinic receptor, and K+ permeability increases
66
In autonomic control what does the sympathetic control do?
Increases in heart rate, β1-adrenergic receptors in node, Na+ and Ca++ permeability increases
67
Where is the cardio vascular control centre?
Medulla oblongata
68
Changes in Pressure during the cardiac cycle.. 3 steps
Clock, pump, integrated
69
What are the Mechanical events of the cardiac cycle?
Late diastole, atrial systole, isovolumetric ventricle, ventricular ejection, isovolumetric ventricular relaxation
70
What are the pressure volume changes during the cardiac cycle?
Passive filling, partial contraction, isovolumetric contraction, ejection of blood in the aorta, isovolumic relaxation
71
What are the factors effecting stroke volume? 3
Preload - more stretch means more force
Contractility - Increased sympathetic activity =
Increased epinephrine release. Increases strength of contraction. Increases rate of both contraction and relaxation. Decreased duration of contraction.
Afterload - Is the combined load of EDV and arterial resistance during ventricular contraction. If the afterload (i.e. resistance) is increased, the heart must work harder to maintain stroke volume
72
What is Venous Return?
The amount of blood that returns to the heart from circulation affected by muscle pump, respiratory pump and venous constriction
73
What is Venous Constriction?
Increased sympathetic activity causes veins to constrict.
Decrease in volume of the veins. Result is more blood is ‘squeezed’ out of them
74
During aerobic exercise peripheral vasodilation will ____ after load
Decrease
75
When blood flow down pressure gradients what level of pressure does it go to what level?
High pressure regions and lower pressure regions, and fluid only flows if there is a positive pressure gradient
76
Flow is dependant on absolute pressure...
No only on pressure gradient
77
What are arteries act as?
A pressure reservoir, thick layers of vascular smooth muscles, lots of elastic and fibrous connective tissue
78
What are arterioles the site of?
Variable resistance, not very elastic more muscular
79
What are the Metarterioles?
They are branches of arterioles, open and close to direct blood flow. can act as bypass channels
80
The redistribution of the blood volumes can occur a what increases?
Cardiac output increases and tissue need more oxygen
81
What are Venules?
They receive blood from capillaries
82
What do veins do?
They take blood back to the heart, which contain one way valves to prevent backward flow
83
What are capillary beds?
A network of small blood vessels that allow the exchange of gas, water, and nutrients.
84
What have to relax for blood to flow through capillaries?
Precapillary sphincters
85
If the precapillary sphincters constrict blood flow bypasses capillaries, where does it flow through?
Metarterioles
86
What gets exchanges at capillaries?
Plasma and cells exchange materials
87
Do capillaries have the thinnest walls?
Yes
88
Do metabolic activity of cells relate to capillary density?
Yes
89
What is angiogenesis?
Development of new blood vessels, which is necessary for normal development
90
What is a sphygmomanometer?
A tool for how blood pressure is estimated
91
MAP is determined by four main categories..what are they?
Blood Volume, Effectiveness of the heart as a pump, resistance of the system of blood flow, relative distribution of blood between arteries and venous BV
92
What is Hyperaemia?
An excess of blood in the vessels supplying an organ or other part of the body. Causing arterioles to dilate
93
What is resistance in the arterioles influenced by?
Local and systemic
94
What is myogenic autoregulation?
Adjusts blood flow
95
What are paracrine signals?
Influence vascular smooth muscle
96
What can have a greater impact on vessel diameter? (a type of factor)
Local
97
Sympathetic control has a greater response when in acute response, and?
When something is at rest
98
Distribution of blood to the tissues changes drastically when the body is in two different states, what are these states?
Cardiac output at rest and during exercise
99
Blood distribution varies according to what need?
Metabolic
100
What percentage of blood is what?
Water 92
Proteins 7
Remander is ions, gases, organic molecules, vitamins and trace elements
101
Plasma/Blood is identical to composition to what?
Interstitial fluid, except it has plasma proteins
102
What are the cellular components of blood?
Red blood cells, platelets, white blood cells
103
What are the main functions of plasma?
Transport materials around the body, and it also acts as a solvent
104
What is the management purposes of plasma?
Primarily management by the kidneys and absorption and excretion of water
105
What are Albumins?
They are major contributors to plasma colloid osmotic pressure; carriers for various substance for defence against foreign invaders
106
What are Phagocytes?
A type of cell within the body capable of engulfing and absorbing bacteria and other small cells and particles; lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils
107
What is the organic cross over between phagocytes and granulocytes?
Neutophils
108
What is the average hemoglobin account?
13 because men is 14-17 and women is 12-16
109
What do cells with a bi-concave shape lack?
A nucleus
110
What does Hb bind reversibly to?
O2
111
1 gram of Hb can transport how much O2
1.34 ml of O2
112
What is a hemoglobin molecule composed of?
Four protein globin chains each centered around a heme group
113
In most hemoglobin chains there are two __ and two ___
Alpha chains and Beta chains
114
What does each heme group consist of?
Pophryin ring with an iron atom in the canter
115
When does Anemia occur?
Not enough red blood cells or they don't function enough, or when hemoglobin content is so low
116
What do RBC disorders decrease?
Oxygen transport
117
How many grams of Hb are typically in 100ml of blood
15g go HB
118
Saturation of venous blood is about __%
75
119
An individual with normal Hb has what ml of O2 in their blood?
201 ml of O2/L of blood
120
An individual with anemia has what ml of O2 in their blood?
134 ml of O2/L of blood
121
What is Hematopoiesis?
production of blood cells
25% RBCS, 75% WBCs, controlled by interleukins
122
What is Erythropoietin?
Regulates RBC production; kidney cells
123
What is Erythopoiesis?
Production of RBC
124
What does Thrombopoietin regulate?
Platelet production; liver primarily
125
How long do RBC live?
120 days
126
What does hematocrit mean?
Ratio of blood cells to plasma in a percentage
127
What is MCV and what does it mean?
Mean corpuscular volume, and the size of red blood cells
128
What is a heme?
A ring with iron atom at its centre
129
Remnants of heme groups are converted to?
Bilirubin (jaundice) excreted as bile
130
What are Megakaryocytes?
Are giant cells with multiple copies of DNA in the nucleus
131
What is megakaryocytic activity determined by?
Thrombopoietin
132
What are Platelets?
Edges of megakaryocytic that break off into cell fragments, smaller than RBC with a 10 day life span; stop blood loss
133
What are platelet plugs restricted to?
Prostacyclin
134
What do both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways both lead to?
Thrombin
135
What does coagulation confer the platelet plug into?
Clot
136
What are the four main respiratory system functions?
Exchange of gases, homeostatic regulation of body ph, protection from inhaled substances, vocalization
137
What is Respiratory System Bulk Flow?
The airways warm, humidify, and filter inspired air
1. Warming air to body temperature
2. Adding water vapor
3. Filtering out foreign material
138
What does BRONCHOCONSTRICTION increase?
Resistance (parasympathetic)
139
What does BRONCHODILATION decrease?
Resistance (sympathetic)
140
What is Pleural Fluid?
Its a fluid that lowers friction, and holds lungs tight against thoracic wall
141
What do pleural sacs enclose?
The lungs
142
When does lung volume change?
Ventilation
143
What is a Spirometer?
Is a diagnostic device that measures the amount of air you can breathe in and out and the time it takes you to breathe
144
What are the four lung volumes?
1) Tidal Volume (VT)
2) Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
3) Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
4) Residual Volume (RV)
145
What is the total lung capacity in the average female and male?
male = 5800ml
female = 4200ml
146
What is tidal volume?
Volume that moves during
a respiratory cycle
147
What is Inspiratory reserve volume?
Additional volume above tidal volume
148
What is Expiratory reserve volume?
forcefully exhaled after the end of a normal expiration
149
What is Residual volume?
volume of air in the respiratory system after maximal exhalation
150
What does the muscular pump create?
Pressure gradients
151
The chest wall wants to expand outward, and lung wants to recoil inwards, what is this called when they work together?
Dynamic Equilibrium
152
When does air flow into the lungs? (related to pressure)
When pulmonary pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure
153
Do gases move up or down pressure gradients?
Down
154
What is subatmospheric intrapleural pressure?
-3 mm Hg
155
What is the site for gas exchange?
Alveoli
156
What is Surfactant?
Reduces surface tension and
this increases Compliance, which
decreases the Work of breathing
157
The airways that are not involved in gas exchange are referred to as what?
Anatomic dead space
158
What is Alveolar ventilation?
The amount of fresh air that reaches the alveoli each minute
159
Bronchiole diameter is mediated primarily by?
CO2 levels in exhaled air passing through them. This is an example of local control
160
What do rate and depth of breathing determine?
The efficiency of breathing
161
Hypoventalation vs Hyperventilation
Is excessive V̇A such that too much CO2 is blown out of the body, not breathing too quickly as the word is commonly (mis)used. Hypoventilation is the opposite; you retain too much CO2
162
What is Hypoxia?
Too little oxygen
163
What is hypercapnia?
Increased concentrations of carbon dioxide
164
Oxygen dissolves in liquid when both the solubility and partial pressure of gas?
True
165
PCO2 can be much lower than PO2 to dissolve ample amounts of carbon dioxide required for transport in plasma
True
166
What is Daltons law?
That the total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures of the individual gases
167
How is oxygen transported in the blood?
Bound to hemoglobin on rbc's and dissolved in plasma
167
What is the most typical oxygen consumption rate ar rest?
250 ml/min or ¼ of a liter
168
How much can fully saturated hemoglobin carry at rest?
20 ml O2/L blood
169
How much can plasma maximally dissolve?
0.3 ml O2/L blood
170
More than 98% of blood is bound to hemoglobin
True
171
Changes affecting binding affinity are reflected by changes to?
HbO2 saturation curve
-pH
- temperature
- CO2
- 2,3-Diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG)
172
CO2 is transported in the blood in 3 ways?
Dissolved in plasma. (~7%)
Combined with bicarbonate (HCO3-) ions. (~70%)
Bound to Hb. (~23%)
173
What is a chemoreceptor?
Special nerve cells that detect changes in the chemical composition of the blood and send information to the brain to regulate cardiovascular and respiratory functions
174
The regulation of ventilation helps with the sensory input from central and peripheral chemoreceptors modify the rhythm of the control network to maintain..
Blood gas homeostasis
175
What must PO2 fall below to simulate the peripheral chemoreceptors?
60 mm Hg
176
Changes in ventilation are technically initiated by changes in cerebrospinal fluid in pH which happens initially in the?
Medulla Oblingata
177
What is the most important function of the kidneys?
The homeostatic regulation of the water and ion content in the blood and balancing intake of ions and water with excretion
178
What percentage of fluid that enters the kidneys returns to the blood?
99%
179
The kidneys filter 180 L of plasma each day which is ___ ml/min
125
180
The total plasma volume is filtered how many times a day?
60
181
What is the average volume of urine leaving the kidneys/day
1.5 L/day
182
What is the renal blood supply?
Large blood vessels that carry blood from your heart to your kidneys
183
Where are the kidneys located?
At the level of the lower ribs
184
What are the Vascular elements of the kidney?
Blood vessels form a PORTAL SYSTEM
– afferent arteriole controls inflow
– glomerulus filtration (specialized capillaries)
– efferent arteriole controls outflow
– peritubular capillaries reabsorption,
– vasa recta reabsorption,
– Venous system
185
Kidneys are arranged into two layers..the?
Outer Cortex (80% nephrons)
Inner Medulla (20% nephrons)
186
What are the titular elements of the nephron?
- Bowman’s capsule
- Proximal tubule
- Loop of Henle
- Distal tubule
- Collecting ducts
- Distal nephron
- Juxtaglomerular apparatus
187
What is a nephron function?
The glomerulus filters your blood, and the tubule returns needed substances to your blood and removes wastes
188
What are the three steps of kidney function?
Filtration
Reabsorption
Secretion
189
What is Filtration Fraction?
The percentage of total
plasma that enters the
Renal corpuscle and
filters into the tubule
190
Most reabsorption in the kidney occurs where?
Proximal tubules
191
What does the secretion step in the kidney function entail?
Is the transfer of molecules from the extracellular fluid into the lumen of the nephron
192
Transport maximum and the renal threshold run on?
Glucose
193
What does capillary pressure cause?
Filtration
194
What is osmotic pressure applied for?
To oppose osmosis
195
What does the renal corpuscle consist of?
This consists of the glomerular capillaries surrounded by the Bowman’s capsule, which is where filtration takes place
196
Substances leaving the plasma must pass
through 3 filtration barriers before entering the tubule lumen?
1) Capillary Endothelium
- Glomerular capillaries are fenestrated
capillaries.
2) Basal Lamina
- prevents plasma proteins from flowing
through it
3) Epithelium of Bowman’s Capsule
- consists of specialized cells called podocytes
197
How do hormones increase
membrane permeability?
by changing the size of the filtration slits or
contraction of the mesangial cells
198
What is GFR and how does it increase and decrease?
Glomerular filtration rate, and it increases and decreases renal blood flow, blood pressure, and permeability of Bowmans capsule
199
What's the hormone that influences GFR?
Angiotensin II
200
Where does GFR take place?
Bowman's Capsule
201
If the afferent arteriole constricts what happens to pretty much everything else?
It all goes down
202
If the afferent arteriole dilates what happens to pretty much everything else?
Goes up
203
What is a myogenic response?
Intrinsic ability of vascular smooth
muscle to respond to pressure
changes
204
What is tubuloglomaric feedback?
Is one of several mechanisms the kidney uses to regulate glomerular filtration rate, its local control
205
Autoregulation of glomerular filtration rate takes place over a wide range of blood pressures
True
206
What is the Juxaglomerular Apparatus?
The walls of the tubule
and the arterioles are
modified in the regions
where they contact one
another
207
The modified portion
of the tubule is called
the....
Macula Densa
208
Epithelial or Transcellular Transport
Na+ moving down its electro-chemical gradient uses the SGLT protein to pull glucose into the cell against its concentration gradient
209
Maintaining ECF osmolarity equilibrium is not essential to maintaining cell volume homeostasis
False
210
Integrated responses to changes in blood volume and pressure
True
211
What is almost half the solute in the interstitial medulla?
Urea
212
Water movement is driven by the osmotic gradient between the tubule and intestinal fluid
True
213
What is the Medullary Osmotic Gradient a counter current system?
The process of using energy to generate an osmotic gradient that enables you to reabsorb water from the tubular fluid and produce concentrated urine
214
Osmolarity changes as fluid flows through the nephron. How does this happen?
Ions and water are reabsorbed
214
Low osmolarity, means lighter pee which means what was reabsorbed in the kidney?
Solute but not water
215
What does Osmolarity mean?
The concentration of a solution expressed as the total number of solute particles per liter
216
What is Diuresis?
Removing excess water in urine
217
The kidneys control urine concentration by altering the amounts of WATER and Na+ that are reabsorbed in the...
Distal nephron
218
A high osmolarity (Due to Urea and Sodium) in the medulla means that the Human max = ~1200 Osmols
True
219
What is vasopression?
Vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or arginine vasopressin (AVP) is a nonapeptide synthesized in the hypothalamus. If vasopressin goes up so does water conservation
220
With maximal Vasopressin id urine highly concentrates?
Yes and water is conserved
221
Vasopressin is secreted in response to three physiological changes
Increased Plasma Osmolarity
Decreased Blood Pressure
Decreased Blood Volume
222
The stimuli to initiate the Na+ balance pathway is more closely related to blood volume and blood pressure than what?
Actual Na+ concentration.
223
Na+ reabsorption in the distal portions of the nephron and collecting ducts is regulated by what hormone?
Aldosterone
224
What is Aldosterone?
A steroid hormone synthesized in the adrenal cortex, which is the outer portion of the adrenal gland that sits on top of each kidney
225
What is the primary target of aldosterone?
Principal (P) cells of the distal tubule and collecting duct
226
Aldosterone secretion is regulated by?
1) Increased extracellular K+ concentrations to protect the body from hyperkalemia.
2) Decreased blood pressure.
Results in the release of the hormone angiotensin II, which typically stimulates aldosterone secretion
3) Decreased plasma Na+.
Directly stimulates aldosterone secretion.
4) Increased ECF osmolarity.
Acts on adrenal cortex TO INHIBIT aldosterone secretion, stopping Na+ reabsorption
227
What is Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone (RAAS)
is the system of hormones, proteins, enzymes and reactions that regulate your blood pressure and blood volume
228
Natriuretic Peptides Promote and Water Excretion
True
229
Overall, ANP increases Na+ and water excretion to..
Decrease blood volume
