Khrushchev and East-West relations, 1955-60 (S3.9)

Question 1

Who was Nikita Khrushchev?

Answer 1

First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964.
> Rose to head the USSR following Stalin’s death in March 1953
> Apart of a ‘collective leadership’ with Malenkov until 1955, where he assumed full control.
> Followed a policy of de-stalinisation from February 1956

Question 2

What policy did Khrushchev begin to widely implement from February 1956?

Answer 2

De-stalinsation

Question 3

In what, when and where was de-stalinisation announced?

Answer 3

Khrushchev’s ‘Secret Speech’, February 1956
20th Party Congress

Question 4

What was de-stalinsation?

Answer 4

Stalin ensured that Easter European states which formed the pro-Soviet, pro-communist Bloc served as clones to Stalinist communism.
> Characterised by a cult of personality, centralised planning, one-party politics, dominance of communism and censorship.
> De-Stalinisation involved the removal of some or most of these controls

Question 5

What effect did the ‘Secret Speech’ have domestically, and how did it portray Khrushchev?

Answer 5

Khrushchev undermined both Stalinism and Soviet-style communism
> Acted as a top-down liberal; wanted communism done through “consent, not coercion”
> Communism was suffering from then on in 1956; never really recovered, and collapses in winter 1989

• Shocked communists and Stalinists who had been indoctrinated by the cult of personality
• Secret Speech could be seen as dishonest as he completely blamed Stalin; Khrushchev was involved in key Stalinist decisions, like collectivisation in Ukraine (which killed five million)

Question 6

What effect did the ‘Secret Speech’ have abroad?

Answer 6

• Text was circulated through EEU; by June 1956, it had reached the US
  > Speech had profound implications for stability in the Eastern Bloc in 1956, and uprisings occurred in both Poland and Hungary shortly after; not an intended outcome.

Question 7

What was the policy of ‘peaceful coexistence’?

Answer 7

Peaceful coexistence involved engaging in diplomacy with the US to diffuse tensions where possible.

Question 8

What were Khrushchev’s key policy ambitions (e.g. ‘peaceful coexistence’…)

Answer 8

• Moscow being the unchallenged leaders of the socialist sphere
• Firm grip on the Eastern Bloc (however, less firm than Stalin)
• Preventing German rearmament/threat
• Expansion of nuclear capability
• Spending on military security
• Defusing international tensions

Question 9

How had Poland become communist (and what was Gomulka’s role in this)?

Answer 9

• Communists weakened the leading peasant party by merging with the Polish socialists (1947)
  > Became the dominant group
  > Some Polish communists were not fully pro-Soviet; i.e. Deputy PM Gomulka, who believed in self-determination
  > Gomulka was replaced by Bierut (hard-line Stalinist) in 1948, and expelled from the Communist Party in 1951

Question 10

When was the Polish Rising?

Answer 10

June-October 1956

Question 11

How did the Polish Rising come to fruition, and what happened?

Answer 11

Bierut died in March 1956
> Khrushchev nominated Ochab to implement de-Stalinisation (Polish communists oppose Ochab)
> Poznan riots break out; demands of lower food prices, better working conditions and an end to Communism (June-)
> Poles elect Gomulka in October 1956

Question 12

What was Khrushchev’s response to the Polish Rising?

Answer 12

Khrushchev initially objected to Gomulka; threatened with losing his route to East Germany, he backed down
> Bejing also showed support to Gomulka, which discouraged him
> Khrushchev ultimately decided he could remain, as long as he did nothing o threaten the local communist rule or the unity of the Soviet Bloc.

Question 13

What was Mao’s role in Eastern Europe?

Answer 13

Mao interferes with Eastern Europe, messing around in the Soviet sphere of influence
> Supports the Polish Rising, encouraging Gomulka
> Mao does this in his attempts for the PRC to replace Moscow as the centre for global communism
> Eventually succeeds in Albania, breaking it away from Moscow

Question 14

Why was the US unwilling to take advantage of the Polish Rising?

Answer 14

Eisenhower and the US were watching but inactive
> Had practised rollback (Iran/Guatemala) and brinkmanship (Taiwan Straits) but was unwilling to interfere due to Nov. 6th 1956 elections
> Moreover, Eisenhower accepted they were fairly apart of the Soviet sphere of influence.

Question 15

How had Hungary become communist?

Answer 15

Salami tactics were employed to establish single-party rule
> Rajk (PM) was executed in 1949 for ‘anti-Soviet’ activities, with all other opposition disappearing.
> Rakosi (Stalinist) becomes ruler of communist Hungary

Question 16

When was the Hungarian Uprising?

Answer 16

October 23rd - November 4th 1956

Question 17

What did Khrushchev do in Hungary to further de-Stalinisation?

Answer 17

Replaced the Stalinist Rakosi with the more liberal leader, Gero

Question 18

What happened on the 23rd of October, 1956, in Hungary?

Answer 18

A large demonstration in Budapest called for the withdrawal of Soviet troops, free speech, free press, free elections and a new government under Nagy (independent-minded Communist)
> Around 200,000 people had joined in
> Iconic statue of Stalin pulled down soon after

Question 19

What did Mao advise Nagy and Khrushchev to do in terms of Hungary?

Answer 19

Mao tells Nagy to push his luck, and tells Khrushchev to allow Nagy to take power.

Question 20

What happened on the 24th of October, 1956, in Hungary?

Answer 20

Nagy, independent-minded Communist, was re-appointed PM
> Demanded the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Hungary

Question 21

What was Khrushchev’s initial response to Nagy demanding Soviet troops leaving?

Answer 21

Khrushchev initially negotiated with Nagy to withdraw his troops, and they began to leave on the 28th of October; convinced Khrushchev military intervention was unnecessary
> Declared they would withdraw (in part due to pressure from China)

Question 22

How did Khrushchev eventually intervene, and why?

Answer 22

1st of November - Nagy announces withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact and declares neutrality
> Nagy pushes his luck too far
> Head of the KGB, Andropov, advises Khrushchev to clash with them (hardliner; eventually becomes Soviet Premier from 1982-1984)
> On the 3rd of November, 15 divisions of the Red Army, 200,000 troops and 4,000 tanks were sent in to crush the rebellion

Question 23

What was the aftermath of the Hungarian Uprising?

Answer 23

4,000 Hungarians were killed
200,000 were exiled
Nagy (eventually executed in 1958) was replaced by Kadar (rules from 1956-1988)
> Kadar becomes a liberalism reformer from 1962; ‘Goulash socialism’

Question 24

Why did the US not intervene with the Hungarian Uprising?

Answer 24

November 6th, 1956 elections
Suez Crisis (Britain and France embarrass Eisenhower)
Risk of nuclear confrontation
> Instead offered Marshall Aid-style plan (economic assistance, with no brinkmanship/rollback)

Question 25

What were the impacts of the Hungarian Uprising?

Answer 25

Lack of intervention from the West confirmed that the post-war status-quo had been accepted; no interference from the West if there was further problems in Eastern Europe Rising was demoted to a debating issue in the UN, signalling that they would too not intervene Moves towards peaceful co-existence were fairly compromised Rising showed there was a need for sociopolitical reform in Eastern Europe, and this reality was not lost on both Soviets and national communists.

Question 26

What sparked the Suez Crisis, and what were the implications?

Answer 26

Egypt had been a British colony for several decades > US and UK cancel their loan to help build the Aswan Dam for the Suez (was going to be used to help regulate water and create hydroelectric power) in July 1956 > Nasser turns to the USSR for finance, who agreed > Nasser announces the nationalisation of the Suez Canal later in July 1956

Question 27

What was Pan-Arabism?

Answer 27

Pan-Arabism was a bold, new, incredibly popular view in the Arab/islamic world which blamed imperialists for their lack of wealth, and encouraged nationalism.

Question 28

When was the Suez Crisis?

Answer 28

October-November 1956

Question 29

What was the British public, American and UN's response to the Suez Crisis?

Answer 29

British newspapers condemned the invasion > British public were not in favour of war US blocked a British approach to the IMF to access funds > Prospect of oil sanctions UN passed a resolution called for an immediate ceasefire (Britain and France instead continued air operations)

Question 30

What was the aftermath of the Suez Crisis?

Answer 30

Nasser remained firmly in power Suez Canal was blocked Britain's relations with its allies were in disarray and its prestige was badly damaged America were reluctant to intervene in Eastern Europe during the crisis

Question 31

When was the Austrian State Treaty signed?

Answer 31

May 1955

Question 32

What was the Austrian State Treaty?

Answer 32

Four occupying powers had reached an agreement on Austria > Withdrawal of all occupying powers > Declaration that Austria would be a neutral state

Question 33

What were the consequences of Austrian State Treaty?

Answer 33

- Showed serious intent on part of both Cold War powers towards mutual cooperation - Agreement over Austria eased the path towards further cooperation > Western powers later removed their occupation forces from West Germany > Next step was to resume summit diplomacy

Question 34

When was the Geneva Summit?

Answer 34

July 1955

Question 35

Why was the Geneva Summit particularly important?

Answer 35

First time since Potsdam for Soviet and US leaders to meet at a summit > Realised arms race could get out of control and end in war

Question 36

What was discussed at the Geneva Summit?

Answer 36

Nuclear disarmament Future of Germany Eisenhower's 'Open Skies' proposal (allowing each other to fly over each others land to conduct aerial surveillance) > Denounced by Khrushchev, as he knew he was emphasising the gap ('espionage plot')

Question 37

What was the result of the Geneva Summit?

Answer 37

No satisfactory outcome for either side (nothing is decided) > However, the summit marked the beginning of dialogue between the superpowers, suggesting peaceful coexistence is possible.

Question 38

When were the Camp David talks?

Answer 38

September 1959

Question 39

What were the Camp David talks, and what were their significance?

Answer 39

Khrushchev visited the US; stayed at the US' presidential holiday home in Camp David > Largely welcome; colder reception in certain areas > Discussed disarmament, Berlin, and agreed to settle disputes via diplomacy (seen as a reaffirmation of Khrushchev's 'peaceful coexistence' (or as he saw it, peaceful competition) > Successful; agreed to have Eisenhower visit the USSR in 1960

Question 40

When was the Paris Summit?

Answer 40

May 1960

Question 41

What ruined the Paris Summit?

Answer 41

U-2 Incident (from May 1st, 1960), and Eisenhower's subsequent attempt at a cover-up

Question 42

When was the U-2 Incident?

Answer 42

May 1960

Question 43

What did the U-2 Incident also ruin, other than the Paris Summit?

Answer 43

Eisenhower's proposed visit to the Soviet Union in 1960

Question 44

What was the Paris Summit planning to discuss?

Answer 44

Nuclear arms reduction Increasing tensions surrounding Berlin

Question 45

What did Khrushchev use the Paris Summit to do, and what was the result?

Answer 45

Khrushchev used the summit to denounce US spying, and cancel a proposed visit to the USSR by Eisenhower > According to Eisenhower, if not for the U-2 Incident, his visit to the Soviet Union could have greatly helped Soviet and American relations

Question 46

What was the state of East-West relations by 1960?

Answer 46

By 1960, East-West relations were characterised by deep mistrust, military confrontation, ideological competition, and a constant threat of nuclear war. The Cold War would continue for decades, with tensions often flaring up in various parts of the world. > Arms and space race (ongoing) > Berlin (1958-1961) > U-2 incident (May 1960) > Southeast Asia (ongoing) > Cuban Revolution (1959)