Khrushchev 1954(6)-1964 [Depth] Flashcards
Khrushchev [1953-64]
How Did he seize power after Stalin’s Death?
Early Stages
How Did Khrushchev gain power after stalin’s death?
• Malenkov was initially given a role of both party secretary and Chairman of the Council of Minister
– (as he has been deputy to Stalin)
– however he was soon forced to resign from being party secretary
– (others feared his growing power).
• Collective leadership
– was then created with Khrushchev as Party Secretary.
– Other members included:
– Molotov (Foreign Minister)
– Beria (head of MVD).
• As Party Secretary
– Khrushchev was able to start appointing his supporters to
important jobs within the party.
• Decline of Beria
– Beria quickly expressed strong anti-Stalinist sentiments
– e.g. releasing political prisoners
– denouncing purges
– reducing construction projects.
This was Popular with many Russians
– but concerned those in the Collective Leadership.
– He was accused on anti-state activities
–secretly tried
–executed.
• Divisions within the Collective Leadership:
• Malenkov & Molotov wanted to change:
– collectivization
– reduce taxes
– focus more on consumer goods.
• Khrushchev wanted
less change:
– but did want more focus on light industries
– he promoted himself as an agricultural expert
– launched the Virgin Lands Scheme in 1954.
– Initial success of this helped him emerge as a leader.
• Decline of Malenkov
– through lack of support
– forced to resign as Prime
Minister in 1955
– Bulganin then became Prime Minister
– (a close ally of Khrushchev &
controlled by him).
Khrushchev [1953-64]
How did he seize power after Stalin’s Death?
Anti-party Group
• Anti-Party Group
• [1957]
– a coup from many in the Presidium to remove Khrushchev
– (especially after his ‘secret speech’).
– It included:
– Malenkov
– Molotov
– Kaganovich.
• However
– Khrushchev argued only the Central Committee could remove him.
– With the support of Marshall Zhukov
- Khrushchev defeated the Anti-Party group
– members were removed (sent to new positions far away from Moscow)
– e.g. Malenkov became Minister for Power Stations
– Molotov became Ambassador to Mongolia
• Significant that Khrushchev did not execute or imprison his opponents.
• Marshall Zhukov & supporters were rewarded for loyalty through seats in the Presidium for aiding Khrushchev Defeat Opposition
Khrushchev [1953-64]
How did He seize power after Stalin’s death?
Individual control
• Marshall Zhukov was dismissed in [1957]
– accused of creating a cult centred on him
– Khrushchev also feared his control over the army.
• Bulganin was forced to resign as Premier by Khrushchev in [1958]
– he was suspected of sympathizing with those in the Anti-Party group.
• Khrushchev was then able to gain sole control as both party secretary & Premier.
– Therefore becoming leader of the USSR
Khrushchev [1953-64]
How did He and the party Carry out De-Stalinisation?
De-stalinisation
• Removal of Beria, police powers & Gulag system
– highlighted the ‘thaw’ of Stlainist repression.
• Although many of the Presidium wanted to denounce Stalin’s terror state & purges
– they were worried it would remind people of the horrors of the past
– therefore an official denouncement was agreed
– in a ‘closed session’ with just partydelegates:
• Secret Speech [1956]
(‘On the Cult of Personality & it’s Consequences’)
- Khrushchev criticized Stalin for:
– the purges
– terror
– gulags
– poor preparation for World War 2
– disliked by Lenin.
• Overall it was accepted well & many were pleased to distance Communism from Stalin’s actions.
• It was a Not-So-Secret Speech
– copies reached foreign countries & others in the party.
• However
– Khrushchev did not denounce:
– economic controls
– strong leadership
– control over citizens.
– As these were aspects he wished to continue.
• What changes were made to the party & politics?:
• Greater democracy & participation:
– Stalin had made all key decisions & the party &
state had had to agree
– however more debate & decision making occurred:
• Democratisation:
– Membership expanded – (7 million in 1956 to 11 million in in 1964)
– more working class members.
– Non party members had more of a role in (party? membership? eh?)
• Decentralisation:
– Party was split into urban & rural sections.
– Local soviets role was increased
- new courts for minor offences.
– Khrushchev visited local towns & villages.
– Economic organization moved from Moscow to local authorities.
• Secret police became less important:
– the Police were bought under control of the party & government.
– Political crimes became less oppressed by the secret police
– some prisoners were freed.
– Much of this was due to the fall of Beria.
• Rise of the Communist Party:
– this increased further after Khrushchev used them
(through it’s Central Committee) to deal with the Anti-Party group coup
– members who helped him became many in the Presidium
Khrushchev [1953-64]
Economy
Industry
Issues He inherited
When Khrushchev came to Ultimate power in 1956 he inherited some issues:
• World War Two destroyed much of Russian industry
– the high death rate reduced
the workforce.
– Russia had gained more areas to control in Eastern Europe following the war (Satellite States)
– Comecon had been created to help the economic organization between these countries
– but this was still low compared to the west.
• The increasing involvement in the Cold War with America also added to financial problems.
• 2 Five Year Plans were created to rebuild the economy &
industry:
• [1946-1950 Five Year Plan]:
– Aimed to catch up with the USA & rebuild heavy industry
& transport
– Grand Projects, canals, industrial plants (long hours & low wages
continued).
• [1951-1955 Five Year Plan]:
– Continued with heavy industry until Malenkov took over in
(1953)
– focus then moved to consumer goods, housing & services
– (less spent on the military & heavy industry).
Khrushchev [1953-64]
Economy
Industry
Problems For K to try Correct
• The Ministers in Moscow were disorganized
– set different targets
– no cohesion &
– not enough administrators to organize the economy.
• No incentive for workers/managers to produce more
– if targets were exceeded, they were then increased the next year & expected to work harder.
• Output /produce was assessed by weight
– so produce such as iron, steel etc was valued more
– (although the pubic wanted textiles, furniture etc. produced more)
Khrushchev [1953-64]
Economy
Industry
Changes made by Khrushchev in industry for the central Party/ policy
Khrushchev made some industrial changes for the economy by Changing and implementing economic policys from the center gov
• 60 Moscow Ministries were abolished.
– Replaced with the creation of 105 economic regions
– (all with their own economic council to organize & supervise).
• This also helped Khrushchev
– as he had more support in local areas
– therefore giving them more power helped to move power away from Moscow (decentrilisation)
• [1959 Seven Year Plan]
- This shows that although there had been some decentralization
– there was still a considerable amount of central planning in
Moscow.
• [replaced by 7th Five Year Plan in 1961]
Khrushchev [1953-64]
Economy
Industry
Industrial Changes Made By Khrushchev
Khrushchev Made other Industrial Changes too:
• Industrial changes:
• Expansion of chemicals industry
– plastics
– artificial fibres
– housing products
– food
– clothing etc
– increased standards of living, fashion & convenience
• Housing
– new flats built of prefabricated materials
• More consumer goods produced/available
– TVs
– radios
– vacuum cleaners
– washing machines
– This shows a focus on private home life & domesticity to ease the workload of women).
• Luxuries: makeup, perfume, fashionable clothing etc. increased
= standard of living, similar to the west.
• Modernisation of power:
– natural gas, oil, coal, power stations.
• Brussels World Fair [1958]
– Khrushchev used this to display advances in Russia’s technology to the rest of the world
– e.g. in areas such as:
• Railways
– many run on electricity & the expansion of the network.
• Aeroflot company was subsidized by the state to offer cheap air travel
– helped trade throughout Russia.
• First nuclear powered ship launched
– called: Lenin in [1959].
• Space
– [1957] first satellite (Sputnik) launched
– a dog was put into space.
– [1961] Yuri Gagarin became the first man in space.
– Showed Advances in Russian Industrial technologies and Ignighted the Space Race
Khrushchev [1953-64]
Economy
Industry
Problems Created by Industrial Chages
Industrial Changes under Khrushchev created problems such as:
• Decentralisation had made the system too complicated & bureaucratic.
• Heavy spending on armaments & the space race
– meant not enough investment & focus was put into improving standards of living, through consumer goods
– (especially in the 1960s)
– e.g. [1958] growth of the economy was 10% per year, but 7.5% in 1964.
Khrushchev [1953-64]
Economy
Aggraculture
Problems Stalin had, which Khrushchev Inherited
aggracultural problems Khrushchev inherited from Stalin
• World War Two had led to many crops, farms & animals being destroyed in the war.
Khrushchev [1953-64]
Economy
Aggraculture
Changes to Aggraculture
Khrushchev made many changes to Aggraculture:
• Further decentralization
– power splipped away from the Ministry of Agriculture
– to local party.
• He wanted to encourage peasants to grow more produce, through schemes such as:
– More money given from the state to peasants for grain & other produce.
– less produce had to be given to the state.
– Taxes were reduced.
– Collectives allowed to set their own targets & greater independence how they use
the land.
– Modernisation to increase production:
– more farms connected to electricity
– use of chemical fertilizer
– farm machinery & tractors
– some collectives merged to create even larger state farms.
• New crops
– Khrushchev encouraged the growing of maize
– this could be used for humans & animals. (it was crap tho)
• Agrocities
– large collective farming towns (with the convenience of towns but traditions of rural life).
– However not very successful.
Khrushchev [1953-64]
Economy
Aggraculture
The Virgin Land Scheme [1956-63]
• The aim was to increase production in uncultivated areas
- West Siberia & North Kazakhstan.
• [1950]
– 96 mill acers of land taken from locals in khazakstan for grow wheat
– by 64 = 165 mill acers
• [1953]
– initial success & then developed out.
– 6 million Acers planted
– Propaganda tried to encourage farmers to move to these areas (build settlements nearbye)
– ¼ million Komsomol (Youth movement) were used help build roads, fences, ditches etc.
• By [1956]
- nearly 36 million hectares had been ploughed for wheat
– increase from 82.5MT grain to 125mT of grain
• Urban ppls finaly belive their food needs are being adequatly met
• 140,000 tractors supplied to farms
• local Climate was ignored
– changed successfull corn and wheat to hard to grow Maize
– seeds sowen on oft unsuitable land so hard to grow
– snow melted by fires to plant, but peasnt settlements always built of wood
– fertiliser was rarley avalible, and land was under fertilised and over used
– ignore soil erosion in arid wind prone env
– × crop rotation = land infertile
• Lead to [1963] food shortage
– super cold and a bad harvest
– ⅓ reduction in production of grain
– 107mill Tonne grain 63 vs 140mill tonne grain 62
– low food for livestock = killed livestock, now low livestock
– grain produced too low to sustain USSR
– had to import Grain from USA and AUS to survive
Khrushchev [1953-64]
Economy
Aggraculture
Success and Failure of Agg policys
SUCCESS
• Increase in production
– e.g. cereals went from 82 million T 1952 to 132 by 1964
– meat from 5.2 in 1952 to 9.1 by 1964
– milk from 36 in 1952 to 63 by 1964.
FAILURE
• Farmers still spent more time on their private plots, rather than communal farming.
• Prices
– state officials kept altering the prices paid for grains
– prices seen as too low by Peasnts
• Most farmers could not work & repair the new technology & tractors effectively.
• Virgin Land Scheme
– poor climate & the soil was not cultivated/rotated enough so it
became infertile. 1963 Food Shortage
• Too much focus on growing maize
– not enough milk or wheat produced
Khrushchev [1953-64]
Economy
Society
Problems inherited by stalin
• Peasants earned 20% less than industrial workers.
• Shortages of food, housing & consumer goods often created problems in towns/cities.
• Long hours of work – often
12 per day.
• High targets often set
• women were expected to work in the industrial factories (as well as domestic duties)
Khrushchev [1953-64]
Economy
Society
Khrushchev’s Improvments
• Greater focus & availability of consumer goods such as:
– radios, washing machines, fridges etc.
• Some foreign imports also allowed
– cosmetics, fashion, textiles etc.
– Highlighting some improvements in standard of living & domestic life.
• Housing crisis partially improved
– new prefabricated & modern housing built.
• Financial improvements
– conscriptions to the state were abolished
– tax for bachelors & childless couples removed (stalin was weird)
– increase in pensions.
• Working conditions
– 40 hour week, 7 hr day
– higher wages for lowest paid
– more power for trade unions
- these created greater social equality & representation for workers.
• Other areas
- higher standard of education at primary/secondary level
– meant more could continue to university
– greater access to doctors & welfare
– improved local & cross country transport (bus network, train services).
– Also increasing standard of living & morale through more westernized standards.
Khrushchev [1953-64]
Economy
Society
What issues didn’t Khrushchev Deal with/ create
• Society was still unequal
– better health care, holidays access to luxuries for those
higher up politically.
– Most working class & peasants could not afford cars
– only party officials.
• Consumer goods were often basic & low quality.
• Russia’s living standards were still below those in the west
Khrushchev [1953-64]
Economy
Social/ culture
Changes/relaxation in culture and Social aspect of Russia
• Reading foreign literature, radio broadcasts was allowed
- also some travel abroad.
• Media/TV showcased Russian talent abroad
– Moscow State Circus & Kirov Ballet.
• ‘Intourist’ created by Khrushchev
- to encourage foreigners to visit Russia
– so other countries could see Russia’s advancements especially in technology.
• E.g. [World Festival of Youth in 1957]
– 34,000 people from 131 countries visited
Moscow.
• [However]
– this created problems for Khrushchev as Russian youth were brought into contact with westerners & many were attracted by the fashion such as:
– jeans, clothes, rock and roll music. (same tho)
• This was partly linked in a rise of opposition from the youth
– vandalism, students boycotting lectures.
– By [1961] the majority were reported to be most motivated by material ambitions.
Khrushchev [1953-64]
Economy
Social/ culture
Basicaly Censorship under Khrushchev
Khrushchev tried to show change through greater acceptance of the arts & individual expression
• however this had restrictions:
– Some new publications were allowed
– Ehrenberg’s ‘The Thaw’ (about a woman who leaves her tyrannical husband)
– Solzhenitsyn’s ‘One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich’ (about life in the gulag).
These both criticized life under Stalin (but not Communism itself.)
• Some western books by Graham Greene & Earnest Hemingway
were also allowed.
• Those that criticized the Soviet system or Communism were not allowed
– e.g. Boris Pasternak’s ‘Dr Zhivago’ that criticized the destruction of society & prosperity by the Bolshevik take over & Civil War.
Khrushchev [1953-64]
Economy
Social/ culture
Churches
• These were continued to be repressed by Khrushchev
– atheism was promoted.
• Children couldn’t attend church services or be taught about Christianity.
• Mass closure of monasteries & churches
– from 22,000 in 1959 to 8000 in 1965
– many became public buildings such as museums.
• Pilgrimages fucking Banned
• 22nd annual Party conference in 1961: Khrushchev introduce bible substitue: ‘Moral code’
Khrushchev [1953-64]
Economy
Social/ culture
Ethnic Minoritys under Nikita Khrushchev
• Khrushchev disliked the idea of greater independence of minoritys
– promoted the idea of a single common language.
• Refused to allow Jews to have their schools
- claimed they were too focused on intellectual ideas
– not enough on industry.
– He refused to allow them to move to the new Jewish state of Israel (created after World War 2)
Khrushchev [1953-64]
Opposition (in the form of the Arts) To Khrushchev
• Due to the greater relaxation of censorship and the arts
– a new group of ‘cultural
dissidents’ emerged
- they used the arts to criticize Khrushchev over issues such as
human rights and democracy.
• Publications (used to critisise K):
• Some writers published abroad
– e.g. Boris Pasternak
- they often circulated back to
Russia, so Censorship sometimes just didnt work.
• Sometimes printing was done at night & secretively given out
– this was dangerous & illegal.
• Underground societies
– ‘The Youngest Society of Geniuses’
– was a student group that published a journal called: ‘The Sphinxes’ with poetry & prose.
• Poetry (to critisise Khrushchev):
• Readings were often heard in squares in Moscow by students & intelligentsia.
– However, some were arrested from [1961] for subversive political behavior
– (content of the poetry was too critical of the regime)
– some were sent to prison.
• Magazines (to crit K):
• Some publishers & editors were also punished for subversive behavior
– e.g. Alexander Ginsburg was sent to Labour camps for complaints about rights and
democracy.
– Publications included ‘Boomerang’ & ‘Phoenix’.
• [1961] – 130,000 (magazine makers) were identified & many arrested for having an ‘anti-social, parasitic way of life’.
– Many had written publications that criticized the government
– they were forbidden to work for the state in skilled/professional jobs
– but some could take jobs such as sweep cleaners.
– However, others were sent to labour camps or mental
hospitals.
• Music & art (to crit K):
• Illegal recordings were also made & passed around
– often with forbidden & western
music styles such as jazz, rock and roll, pop & soul music.
• ‘Non conformist art’ (different to soviet realism) was created & sold privately & secretly.
– E.g. Vassiliev & Kabakov worked as official state children’s book illustrator
– but also produced non’conformist art in the underground movement.
• Khrushchev argued with artists at the Manezh Art Exhibition in 1962
- regarding the function of art.
• Ballet
– the Bolshoi & Kirov ballet companies gained worldwide recognition & fame
for many tourists.
– However, Rudolf Nureyev (who was famous throughout the
world)
– was spied on by the KGB for his modern & non-conformist style
– he defected (never returned) from Russia in [1961]
– after being allowed to leave the country on a ballet tour.
Khrushchev [1953-64]
Opposition
Political Opposition and how he was different at dealing with it than Stalin
• Khrushchev faced opposition from the Communist party in the 1950s
– from conservative members such as Malenkov & Molotov
– who thought he was too
liberal
– disliked the extent of de-Stalinisation & attack on Stalin.
– E.g. the Anti-party group in 1957.
• He removed apparent allies such as Bulganin & Marshall Zhukov
– for fear of their popularity & potential for opposition.
How was punishment different to Stalin?
• Khrushchev dealt with opposition more leniently than Stalin
– e.g. Molotov became
ambassador to Mongolia
– Kaganovich became director of potash works.
– Less were imprisoned & many released for political crimes
– e.g. [1956] up to 9 million
were released or declared not guilty
– by [1960] about 2 million had returned from the Gulags.
• However
– the release & more lenient treatment of political opponents meant:
– more spoke out against Khrushchev & campaigned for greater rights & democracy.
– Some disliked the leniency of Khrushchev
– e.g. violent demonstrations in Georgia in 1956 over destalinization (Stalin was Georgan)
• Overall, ordinary people did not oppose outwardly & appeared to accept their situation
– So Khrushchev didn’t have to result to too much violence.
Khrushchev [1953-64]
The Cold War
Khrushchev inherited the problem that a Cold War already existed, between Russia & the West
• (especially over the issue of Eastern Europe & nuclear power).
• However – he claimed to follow a policy of ‘peaceful coexistence’ with the west
– with greater use of negotiation & trade/peace agreements.
Khrushchev [1953-64]
The Cold War
Success in Dealing with the Cold War
Success:
• [Austrian State Treaty 1955]
– showed support for Austria to gain independence (in return for their neutrality)
& co-operation with the west.
• [Hungarian uprising 1956]
– although this had been created through Hungary’s hope that destalinization would lead to greater independence
– many in Russia were
please with Khrushchev’s firm stance at defeating the rebels using armed forces & tanks. (allot)
• [ Berlin Wall 1961]
– Khrushchev had previously demanded that the west remove
themselves completely from Berlin
– (as it was in Russia’s section of Germany),
– Kennedy refused & the wall was created
– (also to stop more fleeing to the west & fear of spies).
– Many in Russia were impressed by this strong action.
• [Cuban Missile Crisis 1962]
– some praised Khrushchev’s tough stance on negotiations
with Kennedy
– & the agreement for the USA to remove nuclear weapons from
Turkey.
– a ‘hot line’ telephone was also set up after the event
– (to make communication easier between Russia & the USA)
