Key words Flashcards
Variable
Any factor that can vary or change within an investigation. They are generally used in experiments to determine if changes in one factor result in changes to another
Independent variable
Some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated (changed) by the researcher, or changes naturally, so the effect on the dependent variable can be measured
Dependent variable
The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the dependent variable should be caused by the change in the independent variable
Aim
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate (the purpose of the study). It is stated at the outset of the study.
Experimental group/condition
The group/condition in the experiment that received the experimental treatment (the independent variable)
Control group/condition
The group/condition in the experiment that receives no treatment (they are the baseline)
Operationalisation
Clearly specifying/defining observable behaviours that represent the more general construct under investigation/to enable the behaviour under investigation to be measured. In simple terms, this means clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured
Extraneous variable
Any variable, other than the independent variable that may affect the dependent variable if it is not controlled.
Confounding variable
A kind of extraneous variable but the key feature is that a confounding variable varies systematically with the independent variable. Therefore, we can’t tell if any change in the dependent variable is due to the independent variable or the confounding variable.
Demand characteristics
Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of an investigation. This may lead to a participant changing their behaviour within the research situation.
Investigator effects
Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (the DV). This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of and interaction with participants during the research process.
Participant variables
Characteristics of individual participants (such as age, intelligence, etc.) that might influence the outcome of a study.
Situational variables
Features of the environment which may influence the outcome of a study (e.g., noise, temperature)
Social desirability bias
A tendency for respondents to answer questions in such a way that presents themselves in a better light.
Randomisation
The use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions. Controls participant variables
Standardisation
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study so as to avoid investigator effects caused by different procedures/instructions.
Single-blind design
A type of research design in which a participant is not aware of research aims and/or of which condition of the experiment they are receiving. Controls demand characteristics
Double-blind design
Neither the participant nor the researcher conducting the study are aware of the research aims or other important details of a study, and thus have no expectations that might alter a participant’s behaviour. Controls demand characteristics and investigators effect
Experimental method
A research process that involves following scientific guidelines to test hypotheses and establish causal relationships between variables (that the IV is manipulated and this is what causes the changes in the DV). There are three important requirements of scientific research that follow the experimental method; these are that research should be empirical, reliable and valid.
Laboratory experiment
An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables.
Field experiment
An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.
Natural experiment
An experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. The researcher records the effect on a DV they have decided on.
Quasi-experiment
A study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients. The IV has not been determined by anyone (the researcher or any other person) - the “variables” simply exist, such as being old or young. Strictly speaking this is not an experiment - the IV is a naturally occurring difference between participants
Experimental designs
The different ways in which the participants are assigned to different groups/conditions of the experiment – independent groups, repeated measures or matched pairs
Independent groups
Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition
Matched pairs
Pairs of participants are first matched on some variables that may affect the dependent variable. Then one member of the pair is assigned to Condition A and the other Condition B
Repeated measures
All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment
Random allocation
An attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups design which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other
Counterbalancing
An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design: half the participants experience the conditions in one order and the other half in the opposite order
Ethical issues
These arrive when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data.
Informed consent
An ethical issue and an ethical guideline in psychological research whereby participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order for them to make an informed decision about whether to participate.
Deception
An ethical issue, most usually where a participant is not told the true aims of a study (e.g. What participation will involve) and thus cannot give truly informed consent. Occasionally deception may involve the provision of false information.
Confidentiality
An ethical issue concerned with a participant’s right to have personal information protected.
Privacy
An ethical issue that refers to a zone of inaccessibility of mind or body and the trust that this will not be “invaded”. Contrasts with confidentiality. Can be dealt with in some situations by providing anonymity.
Right to withdraw
An ethical issue; participants should have the right to withdraw from participating in a research study if they are uncomfortable with the study.
Debriefing
A post-research interview designed to inform the participants of the true nature of the study and to restore them to the state they were in at the start of the study
Presumptive consent
A method of dealing with lack of informed consent or deception, by asking a group of people who are similar to the participants whether they would agree to take part in a study. If this group of people consents to the procedures in the proposed study, it is presumed that the real participants would agree as well.
Prior general consent
Prospective participants in a research study are asked if they would take part in certain kinds of research, including ones involving deception. If they say yes they have given their general consent to taking part in such research.
Retrospective consent
Obtaining permission after a study or event.
Cost-benefit analysis
Making a decision by weighing up costs (in terms of time, money, harm) against gains (in terms of value to society).
Pilot study
A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. The aim is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales, etc, work. The aim is also to allow the researcher to make changes or modification if necessary.
Case study
A research method that involves a detailed study of a single individual, institution or event. Case studies provide a rich record of human experience but are hard to generalise from.
Correlation
A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables, called co-variables. Always ordinal or interval data.
Positive correlation
As one co-variable increases so does the other. For example, the number of people in a room and noise tend to be positively correlated.
Negative correlation
As one co-variable increases the other decreases. For example, the number of people in a room and amount of personal space tend to be negatively correlated.
Zero correlation
When there is no relationship between the co-variables. For example, the association between the number of people in a room in Manchester and the total daily rainfall in Peru is likely to be zero.
Co-variables
The variables investigated within a correlation, for example, height and weight. They are not referred to as the independent and dependent variables because a correlation investigates the association between the variables, rather than trying to show a cause-and-effect relationship where one variable “depended” on the other.
Curvilinear/non-linear relationships
A curvilinear relationship is a type of relationship between two variables that has a pattern of correspondence or association between the two variables that change as the values of the variables change (increase or decrease).
Correlation coefficients
A number between -1 and +1 that represents the direction and strength of a relationship between co-variables.
Self-report techniques
Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and/or experiences related to a given topic
Questionnaires
A set of written questions (sometimes referred to as ‘items’) used to assess a person’s thoughts and/or experiences
Interviews
A ‘live’ encounter (face-to-face or on the phone) where one person (the interviewer) asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee’s thoughts and/or experiences. The questions may be pre-set (as in a structured interview) or may develop as the interview goes along (unstructured interview)
Structured interviews
Any interview where the questions are decided in advance, basically a questionnaire delivered by a person
Unstructured interviews
The interview starts out with some general aims and possibly some question, and lets the interviewee’s answers guide subsequent questions
Semi-structured interviews
An interview that combines some predetermined questions (as in a structured interview) and some questions developed in response to answers given (as in an unstructured interview)
Interviewer bias
A type of human error committed by recruitment professionals wherein they form a baseless judgment about an interviewee. This kind of bias hinders them from assessing a candidate objectively, which greatly affects the purpose of the interview.
Open questions
Questions for which there is no fixed choice of response and respondents can answer in any way they wish. For example, why did you take up smoking?
Closed questions
Questions for which there is a fixed choice of responses determined by the question setter. For example, do you smoke? (yes/no)
Naturalistic observation
Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur
Controlled observation
Watching and recording behaviour within a structed enviroment, i.e. One where some variables are managed
Overt observation
Participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent
Covert observation
Participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent
Participant observation
The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording
Non-participant observation
The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording
Structured observation
The researcher uses various systems to organise observations such as sampling technique and behavioural categories
Unstructured observation
Every instance of a behaviour is recorded in as much detail as possible. This is useful if the behaviours you are interested in do does not occur very often
Behavioural categories
When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable (operationalisation)
Sampling methods
Sampling methods are the techniques used to gather a sample of participants that are representative of the target population in a study.
Continuous sampling
Continuous sampling method is another sampling method that is frequently used to observe behaviour. When using this method, the observer simply records all of the activity that occurs while the animals are being watched. This sampling method is very helpful in recording social interaction between two or more animals in a group.
Time sampling
A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame, say every 60 seconds
Event sampling
A target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs
