Key Words Flashcards
(441 cards)
1
Q
Accommodation
A
people adapt current knowledge structures in response to new info
2
Q
Acculturation
A
Adjusting new culture while retain aspects of the old one
3
Q
Achievement motivation
A
If a child is motivated by mastery or other’s perception of their success
4
Q
Activating influences
A
Results from certain fluctuation of sex-linked hormone levels affecting cooccurring activation of the nervous system and corresponding behavioral responses
5
Q
Active learning
A
Learning through engaging with the world rather than passive observation
6
Q
Adrenarche
A
Period prior to visible emergence of puberty, adrenals glands mature and sources majority of sex steroid hormones, onset with sexual attraction
7
Q
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)
A
Traumatic childhood experiences that are linked to physical and mental health issues later in life
8
Q
Affiliation
A
Tendency to affirm connections by being emotionally open, empathetic, or supportive
9
Q
Affordance
A
Possibility of actions offered by object and/or situations
10
Q
Agender
A
Individual outside gender categories
11
Q
Aggression
A
Behavior with the intention of physically or emotionally hurting someone
12
Q
Aggressive-rejected (peer status)
A
Children that are view as prone to physical aggression by their peers due to disruptive and negative behavior and delinquency
13
Q
Alleles
A
Tow or more forms of the same gene
14
Q
Ambivalent sexism
A
Model that includes hostile sexism (endorsement of men’s dominance with negative views of women wanting equality) and benevolent sexism (belief that men have to protect women and that men and women have complementary traits)
15
Q
Amniotic sac
A
Transparent, fluid filled membrane that surrounds and protects fetus
16
Q
Amygdala
A
Brain area involved with emotional reactions
17
Q
Anal stage
A
Second stage in Freud’s theory during which primary source of pleasure comes from defecation (2-3 years of age)
18
Q
Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)
A
Condition during prenatal development occurring when androgen receptors malfunction in genetic males causing the child to develop external female genitalia and impeding development of male genitalia
19
Q
A-not-B error
A
Tendency to reach for hidden objects where it was lat found, not where it was last hidden (before age of 1 year)
20
Q
Antisocial behavior
A
Disruptive and hostile behavior that goes against social norms and harms/takes advantage of others
21
Q
Anxiety disorders
A
Mental disorders that involve inability to regulate fear and worry
22
Q
Apgar score
A
Method for evaluating health of a new born based on skin tone, pulse, facial response, limb activity, and breathing
23
Q
Apoptosis
A
Genetically programmed cell death
24
Q
Arborisation
A
Formation of new dendritic trees and branches
25
Assertion
Take action of the self through competitive, independent, or aggressive behavior
26
Assimilation
Process when people translate incoming info into a way that it fits in preexisting understood concepts
27
Association area
Parts of the brain that lie between major sensory and motor area and process and integrate the input from those areas
28
Attachment
Emotional bond with a specific person that is endure across space and time
29
Attachment theory (John Bowlby)
Poses that children are biologically predisposed t develop attachments to caregivers to increase their chances at survival
30
ADHD
Attention deficits syndrome
31
Auditory localization
Perception of location of a a sound source in space
32
Authoritarian parenting style
Low in warmth, high in control/demand
33
Authoritative parenting
High in warmth, high in control/demand; give support and set clear standards and expectations
34
Axons
Neural fibers that conduct electrical signals away from the cell body to connections with other neurons
35
Babbling
Repetitive constant-vowel sequences or hand movements (for sign language) (emerges around 4-6 months old)
36
Basic level
Middle and often first level learned in hierarchical structures (animal-dog-poodle)
37
Basic processes
Simplest and most frequent mental activities
38
Behavior genetics
Concerned with how variation in behavior stems from external and genetic factors
39
Behavior modification
Therapy based on principles of operant conditioning; reinforcement contingencies are changed to encourage adaptive behavior
40
Bidirectionality of parent-child interactions
Idea that parents and children are mutually affected by each other’s characteristic and behavior
41
Bigender
Individuals that identify as two genders
42
Bilingualism
Fluency of two languages
43
Binocular disparity
Differences between the retinal imagery of an object in each eye that results in two slightly different signals being sent to the brain
44
Body image
Individual’s perception and feeling about their own body
45
Carolina Abecedarian Project
Comprehensive and successful enrichment program for children from low-income families
46
Carrier genetic testing
Used to determine whether prospective parents are carriers of specific disorders
47
Categorical perception
Perception that phonemes are belonging to discrete categories (infants as young as 4 weeks show it)
48
Category hierarchy
Category that is organized by set-subset relations (animal-dog-poodle)
49
Cell body
Component of neuron that contains basic biological materials that keeps neuron functioning
50
Centration
Tendency to focus on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object or event
51
Cephalocaudal development
Pattern of grown during which areas near the head develop earlier than areas farther from the head
52
Cerebral cortex
Gray matter of the brain, consist of four lobes
53
Cerebral hemispheres
Two halves of the cortex
54
Cerebral lateralization
Specification of the the hemispheres of the brain for different modes of processing
55
Child maltreatment
Action of failure to act as a caretaker that results in physical or emotional harm of the child
56
Chromosomes
Molecules of DNA that transmit genetic information (made from DNA)
57
Chronosystem
Historical changes that influence the other systems
58
Cisgender
Individuals that identify as their assigned gender/sex at birth
59
Classical conditioning
Learning associated with an initially neural stimulus that eventually causes a conditioned response
60
Clinical interview
Procedure in which questions are adjusted in accord to what answers the interviewee provides
61
Cognitive development
Development of thinking and reasoning
62
Colic
Excessive, inconsolable crying by a young infant for no apparent reason
63
Collaboration
Coordination of assertion and affiliation in behavior, ex. Making initiatives for a joint activity
64
Collective monologues
Conversation between children that involve a series of non sequiturs
65
Comprehension monitoring
Process of keeping track of one’s understanding of a verbal description or text
66
Computer simulation
Mathematical model that expresses ideas about mental processes in precise ways
67
Conception
Union of egg and sperm
68
Concepts
General ideas or understandings that can be used to group object, events, abstracting, or qualities that are similar in some ways
69
Concrete operational stage
3rd of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, period in Chico children become able to reason logically about concrete events (age 7-12 years)
70
Conditioned response (CR)
Originally reflexive response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus
71
Conditioned stimulus
Neutral stimulus that is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus
72
Conduct disorder
Involves severe antisocial sand aggressive behavior that inflicts pain on others and involves the destruction of others property
73
Cone cells
Light sensitive neurons that are highly once treated in the fovea (central region of retina)
74
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
Condition during prenatal development during which adrenal glands produce high levels of androgens; associated with masculinization of external genitalia in females and may be associated with higher rates of masculine-stereotyped play in genetic females
75
Connectionism
Computational modeling approach emphasizing the simultaneous activity of interconnected processing units
76
Conscience
Internal regulatory mechanism that increases individuals ability to conform to standards of conduct in their culture
77
Conservation concept
Idea that merely changing the appearance of objects does not necessarily change objects others key traits
78
Constructivism
Theory that infants build increasingly advanced understanding by combing rudimentary innate knowledge with subsequent experiences
79
Continuous development
Idea that change occurs gradually with age
80
Contrast sensitivity
Ability to detect differences in light and dark areas in visual pattern
81
Control group
Participants that are nor given the treatment but are otherwise assessed in the same way
82
Controversial (peer status)
Individuals that are liked by a few and disliked by other peers
83
Co-regulation
Process in which caregivers provide needed comfort/distraction to help reduce a child’s distress
84
Core-knowledge theories
View children as having some innate knowledge in domains of evolutionary importance an domain specific learning mechanisms for rapidly and effortlessly acquiring info in those domains
85
Corpus callosum
Dense tract of nerve fibers that enable brain hemispheres to communicate
86
Correlation
Association between two variables
87
Correlation design
Studies intended on finding an association between two factors
88
Co-rumination
Extensively discussion and self-disclosing emotional problems with another person
89
Cross-gender-typed
Behavior stereotyped or expect of a gender other than the persons
90
Crossing Over
Process by which sections of DNA SWITCH CHROMOSOMES to another, promotes variability in genes and individual
91
Cross-sectional design
Research method in which participants of different ages are compared on a given behavior over a short period of time
92
Cross-situational word learning
Determining words meanings by tracking correlation between labels and meanings across scenes and contexts
93
Crystallized intelligence
Factual learning about the world
94
Cultural tools
Innumerable products of human ingenuity that enhance thinking
95
Cumulative risk
Accumulation of disadvantages over years of development
96
Cyber bullying
Repeated and intentional harassment of an individual via digital means
97
Deferred imitation
Repeating behavior a substantial time after it initially occurred
98
Dendrites
Neural fibers that receive input from other cells and conduct it toward the cell body in the form of electric impulses
99
Dependent variable
What’s being measured in an experiment
100
Depression
Mental disorder that involves a persistent sad or irritable mood along with physical and cognitive changes and interferes with daily life
101
Developmental resilience
Successful development in spite of seemingly overwhelming developmental hazards
102
Differential susceptibility
Circumstances in which the same temperament characteristic puts some children at high risk in harsh homes but helps others blossom in positive homes
103
Direction-of-causation problem
Concept that correlation with two variables does not indicate which ones has the greater influence or if any of them is actually responsible for the effect observed
104
Discipline
Set of strategies and behaviors parents use to teach children how to behave properly
105
Discontinuous development
idea that change with age include occasional large shifts
106
Discrete emotions theory
Theory that states that emotions are innate and that each emotion has a specific ans distinctive set of facial and body reactions
107
Dishabituation
Introduction of new stimulus rekindles interest following habituation to a repeated stimulus
108
Disorganized/disoriented attachment
Types of insecure attachment, children have no consistent way of coping with stress in the Stranger Situation; behavior is confused and contradictory
109
Display rules
Informal norms of a social group; dictates which emotions should be displayed when and when they are appropriate
110
Distributional properties of speech
In a Language, sounds are more likely to occur together than others
111
DNA (deoxyribosenuleic acid)
Molecules that carry genetic info that is needed for formation and functions of an organism
112
Domain specific
Info about a particular content area
113
Dominant alleles
Alleles that are expressed if at all present
114
Dose-response relation
Relation in which the effect of exposure to an element increases with the extent of exposure (prenatally more exposure to teratogen the more severe the effect)
115
Dual representation
Treating a symbolic artifact as a real object and a symbol for something else
116
Dynamic systems theory
Theories that focus on how change occurs over time in complex systems
117
Dyslexia
Inability to read and spell well despite normal intelligence
118
Effect size
Magnitude of difference between tow group averages and amount of overlap in their distributions
119
Ego (psychoanalytic theory)
Second personality structure to develop; rational, logical, and problem solving component of personality
120
Egocentric spatial representation
Coding of spatial locations in relation to ones ow body amend ignoring the surrounding
121
Egocentrism
Tendency to perceive the world solely from one’s own perspective
122
Embryo
Developing organisms; 3rd to 8th week of prenatal development
123
Embryonic stem cells
Undifferentiated embryonic cells that can develop into any kind of body cell
124
Emotion coaching
Use of discussion and other forms of instruction to teach children to properly cope with their emotions
125
Emotion regulation
Set of conscious and unconscious processes that monitor and modulate emotional experiences and expression
126
Emotion socialization
Children acquire values, standards, skills, knowledge and behavior that is regarded as appropriate for their present an future roles in their cultuer
127
Emotional intelligence
Ability to cognitively process info about emotions and use that info to guide thought and behavior
128
Emotions
Neural and physiological responses to stimuli in the environment; subjective feelings towards a person or object
129
Enactive experience
Learning to take the past reactions of others to one owns behavior into account
130
Encoding
Process of representing memory info that draws attention or is considered important
131
Endophenotypes
Intermediate phenotypes (brain and nervous systems) that don’t involve openly displayed behavior
132
Entity theory
Theory that level of intelligence is fixed and unchangeable
133
Entity/helpless orientation
Tendency to attribute success and failure to enduring aspects of the self and giving up in face of failure
134
Environment
Every aspect of an individuals surrounding expect their genes
135
Epigenesis
Emergence of new structures and functions in the course of development
136
Epigenetics
Study of stable change in genetic expression mediated by the environment
137
Equifinality
Concept that various causes can lead to the same mental disorders
138
Equilibration
Process by which children balance assimilation and accommodation to create stable understanding
139
Erogenous zones (Freud’s theory)
Areas of the body become erotically sensitive in successive stages of development
140
Essentialism
View that living things have an essence inside that makes them what they are re
141
Ethnic and racial identity
Beliefs and attitudes that an individual has about the ethnic and racial group they belong to
142
Ethology
Study of evolutionary bases of behavior
143
Exosystem
Environmental setting that a child doesn’t directly experience but can effect a child indirectly (neighborhood, parent’s friends, etc.)
144
Experience-dependent plasticity
Process through which neural connections are made and reorganized through life as a function of experiences
145
Experience-expectant plasticity
Process through which normal wiring of the brain occurs as a result of species typical experiences
146
Experimental control
Ability to determine specific experiences during the course of an experiment
147
Experimental design
Approaches that allows inference about causes and effects
148
Experimental group
Participants that are given treatment during a n experiment
149
External validity
Degree to which results can be generalized
150
False belief problem s
Task that tests a child’s understanding that other people will act in accord with their ow beliefs even when the child knows they are incorrect
151
Family
Group that involves at least one adult that is somehow related to the child and is responsible for providing basic necessities and love and support
152
Family dynamics
Ways in which family members interact throughout various relationships
153
Family structure
Number of an relationships among the people living in a household
154
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)
Harmful effects of maternal alcohol consumption during prenatal development
155
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
Range of effects including facial deformities, intellectual disabilities, attention problems, and hyperactivity
156
Fetal alcohol effects (FAE)
Term used for individuals that show some but not all symptoms of FAS
157
Fetus
Developing organism from 9th week to birth
158
Fluid intelligence
Ability to think on the spot to solve novel problems
159
Flynn effect
Consistent rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the last 80 years
160
Formal operational stage
4th stage of Piaget’s theory; ppl become able to think about abstractions and hypothetical situations (12 years and older)
161
Fraternal (dizygotic) twins
Twins that are a result of two eggs being fertilized at the same time by two different sperm (only have of their genes are in common)
162
Friend
Individual with whom you have an intimate, reciprocal, positive relationship with
163
Frontal lobe
Major area of the cortex that is a associated with working memory and cognitive control
164
Functionalist perspective
Theory that argues the basic functions of emotion is to promote action towards achieving a goal; emotions are not discrete and vary based on social environment
165
G (generalized intelligence)
Cognitive processes that influence the ability to think and learn on all intellectual tasks
166
Gametes (germ cells)
Sex cells, egg and sperm; obtain half of genetic material than other body cells
167
Gender
Social assignment as girl or boy (or others depending on the individual)
168
Gender constancy
Realization that gender is invariant despite superficial changes in a person’s appearance or behavior
169
Gender-fluid
Individuals who self-identify with different gender categories depending on the context
170
Gender identity
Self-identifying as a gender
171
Gender nonconformity
Individuals that are highly cross-gender-typed in relation to their assigned gender
172
Gender-role flexibility
Recognition of gender roles as social conventions and adoption of more flexible attitudes and interests
173
Gender role intensification
Heightened concerns with adhering to traditional gender roles that may occur during adolescence
174
Gender schema filter
Initial evaluation of information as relevant for one’s own gender
175
Gender schemas
Organized mental representation about gender including gender stereotypes
176
Gender segregation
Tendency to associate with same gender peers and void other-gender peers (begins around age 2.5-3 and intensifies throughout elementary school)
177
Gender stability
Awareness that gender remains the same over time
178
Gender-typed
Behaviors stereotypes or expected from one’s assigned gender
179
Gender typing
Process of gender socialization
180
Generative
System in which a finite set of words can be combined to produce an infinite amount of sentences
181
Genes
Section of chromosomes that’s re the basic units of heredity
182
Genital stage (Freud)
Final stage (5th) beginning in adolescence during which sexual maturation occurs and is completed
183
Genome
A persons complete set hereditary info including all genes and DNA
184
Genotype
Genetic material a person inherits
185
Gesture-speech mismatch
Phenomenon in which hand movements don’t convey the same message as spoken statements
186
Glial cell
Brain cells that provide variety of critical supportive function
187
Goodness of fit
Degree to which an individual temperament is compatible with the demands of their social environment
188
Guided participation (Vygotsky)
Process in which knowledgeable individuals organize activities that allow less knowledgeable people to learn
189
Habituation
Simple form of learning that involves a decrease in response to a repeated stimulus
190
Heritability
Statically estimate of the proportion of measured variance on a trait among individuals in a given population that is attributable to genetic variation
191
Heritable
Refers to characteristics that are genetically transmitted
192
Heterozygous
Having different alleles for a trait
193
Homozygous
Having two same alleles for a trait
194
Hostile attribution bias (Dodge)
Tendency to assume that other peoples ambiguous actions stem from hostile intent
195
Hypothesis
Testable predictions of the presence or absence of phenomena or relations
196
Id (Feud, psychoanalytic theory)
Earliest and most primitive personality structure; unconscious and operates to seek pleasure
197
Identical (monozygotic) twins
Twins that are the result of one egg being fertilized and splitting into two zygotes; have the exact sam genes
198
Identity
Description of self that is externally imposed
199
Identity achievement
Integration of various aspects of the self into a coherent whole that is stable across time and situations
200
Identity diffusion
Period during which an individual does not have firm commitments regarding issues in question and is not making progress towards developing them
201
Identity foreclosure
Period in which the individual has not engaged in any identity experimentation and has established a vocational or ideological identity based on choices and values of others
202
Imaginary audience
Belief stemming from adolescence egocentrism that everyone else is focused on the persons appearance and behavior
203
Imprinting
Learning in which new Borns of a species becomes attached and follows adult members of the species
204
Incremental theory (Intelligence)
Theory that a persons intelligence can grown as a function of experience
205
Incremental/mastery orientation
General tendency to attribute success and failure to the amount of effort expended and to persist in the face of failure
206
Independent variable
What’s being changed during an experiment
207
Infant mortality
Dearth during first year after birth
208
Infant-directed speech (IDS)
Distinctive way of speech used when speaking to infant and toddlers
209
Information-processing theories
Theories that focus on the structure of cognitive system and mental activities used to deploy attention and memory to solve problems
210
Ingroup assimilation
Socialization of individuals to conform to their group’s norms and to demonstrate characteristic that defines the ingroup
211
Insecure/avoidant attachment
Insecure attachment type in which infants seem indifferent to the caregiver and may avoid the caregiver; when the infant is upset after being left alone they are easily consoled by a stranger
212
Insecure/resistant attachment
Insecure attachment in which an infant stays close/is clingy to their caregiver instead of exploring the environment; tend to get upset when being left alone and is not easily consoled but seeks and resists comfort from the caregiver
213
Instrumental/operant conditioning
Learning the relation between ones own behavior and reinforcers
214
Instrumental aggression
Aggression motivated by the desire to attain a goal
215
Interest filter
Initial evaluation of info as being personally interesting
216
Intermittent reinforcement
Inconsistent response to behavior
217
Intermodal perception
Coming info from two or more sensory systems
218
Internal validity
Degree to which effects observed can be attributed to the factor the experiment is testing
219
Internal working model of attachment
Child’s mental representation of self, attachment figures and of relationships in general that is constructed as a results of their interactions with caregivers
220
Internalization
Process by which children learn and accept reasons for desired behavior
221
Interrater reliability
Amount of agreement in the observations of two different readers who witness the same behavior
222
Intersectionality
Interconnection of social identities (gender, race, age, sexual orientation) in relation to overlapping experiences of discrimination and disadvantages
223
Intersex
Conditions in which individuals of one genetic sex develop genitalia with other or both sexes
224
Intersubjectivity
Mutual understanding that people share during communication
225
IQ
Quantitive measurement of a child’s intelligence relative to that of other children of the same age
226
Joint attention
Process in which Social partners intentionally focus on a common referent in the external environment
227
Language comprehension
Understanding what others say (sign our write)
228
Language production
Process of speaking (signing or writing)
229
Latency period (Freud, psychoanalytic)
Fourth stage, sexual energy gets channeled into socially acceptable activities (ages 6-12)
230
Longitudinal design
Method of study in which the same participants are studies over a longer period of time
231
Long-term memory
Info retained on an enduring basis
232
Low birth weight (LBW)
Birth weight less than 5 1/2 pounds (2500 g)
233
Macro system
Larger cultural and social context within which the other systems are integrated
234
Mathematical equality
Concept that the values on each side of the equal sign must be equal
235
Meiosis
Cell division that produces gametes
236
Menarche
Onset of menstruation
237
Mental disorder
Sate of having difficulties with emotional reactions to the environment and with social relationships in ways that affect daily life
238
Mental health
Child’s sense of well-being both internally and externally (relation ships with family members)
239
Mesosystem
Interconnections among immediate (Microsystems) Settings (ex.parents relation to teachers)
240
Meta-analysis
Statistical method for combining results from independent studies to reach conclusions based on all of them; used to summer age the average effect
241
Methylation
Biochemical process that influences behavior by suppressing gene activity and expression
242
Micro genetic design
Method of study in which the same participants are studied repeatedly over a short period of time
243
Microsystem
Immediate environment a child interacts with (parents, teachers, family,…)
244
Mitosis
Cell division that results in identical cells
245
Monocular depth (pictorial) cues
Perceptual cues of depth (relative size and interposition) that can be perceived by one eye alone
246
Moral domain
Area of social knowledge based on concepts of right and wrong, fairness, justice, and individual rights; contexts apply throughout all situations and time
247
Moratorium
Period in which the individual is exploring various occupational and ideological choices and has not yet made a clear commitment to them
248
Morphemes
Smallest unit of meaning in language
249
Multifinality
Concept that certain risk factors do not always lead to a mental disorder
250
Multiple intelligence theory (Gardner)
Theory of intellect; based on view that ppl posses at least eight types of intelligence (Naturalistic, linguistic, visual/spatial, kinaesthetics, logical, musical, logical, intrapersonal, interpersonal)
251
Mutation
Change of a section of DNA (can be harmful, neutral or beneficial)
252
Myelin sheath
Fatty sheath that forms around certain axons and increases speed and efficiency of neural transmission
253
Myelination
Formation of myelin (fatty sheath) around the axons to increase speed and efficiency of info-processing abilities
254
Naive psychology
Common sense understanding of people and oneself
255
Narratives
Story-like structured descriptions of events
256
Nativism
Theory that infants have substantial innate knowledge about evolutionary important domains
257
Naturalistic observation
Method of research that does not involve interfering with naturally occurring behavior but simply observing it
258
Nature
Biological endowment; genes we get from our parents
259
Neglected (peer status)
Children or adolescents who are infrequently mentioned as either liked or disliked; not noticed by their peers
260
Neural tube
Groove formed in the top layer of differentiated cells in the embryo; eventually becomes spinal cord and brain
261
Neurogenesis
Proliferation of neurons through cell division
262
Neurons
Cells that are specialized for sending or receiving messages between the brain and the body and within the brain itself
263
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals involved in communicating among brain cells
264
Newborn screening
Test used to screen newborns for a range of genetic and no genetic disorders
265
Non-binary
Individuals that don’t just identify as one gender
266
Non-REM sleep
Deep sleep that is characterized by the absence of motor activity or eye movement and more regular, slow brain waves, breathing and heart rate
267
Normal distribution
Pattern of data in which scores fall symmetrical around the mean value
268
Numerical equality
Realization that all sets of N objects have something in common
269
Numerical magnitude representation
Mental models of the size of numbers ordered in a less-to-more dimension
270
Nurture
Environment, physical and social, that influences development
271
Object permanence (tested by Piaget
Knowledge that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight (develops at around 8 months of age)
272
Object segregation
Identification of separate objects in a visual array (about 4.5 months of age)
273
Object substitution
Form of pretense in which an object is used as something other than itself (develops at around 19 months)
274
Occipital lobe
Major area of the cortex that is primarily involved in processing visual information
275
Opportunity structure
Economic and social resources offered by the Marco system in the bioecological model; peoples understanding of those resources
276
Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD)
Disorder characterized by age-inappropriate and persistent displays of angry, defiant, and irritable behavior
277
Optical expansion
Depth cue in which an object occludes increasingly more of the background, indicating that the object is approaching
278
Oral stage (Freud, psychoanalytic)
First stage, primary sources of satisfaction and pleasure comes from oral activities (during the 1st year)
279
Organizing influences
Potential result of certain sex-linked hormones affecting brain differentiation and Organisation during prenatal development or at puberty
280
Overextension
Overly broad interpretation of the meaning of a word
281
Overlapping waves theory
Information-processing approach that emphasizes that variability of children’s thinking
282
Over-regularization
Speech errors in which children treat irregular forms of words as if they were regular
283
Parental sensitivity
Caregiving behavior that involves the expression of warmth and contingent responsiveness to a child when it esquires assistance or is in distress
284
Parental-investment theory
Theory that stresses evolutionary basis of many aspects of parental behavior that benefits their offspring
285
Parenting styles
Parenting behavior and attitudes that set the emotional climate in regard to parent-child interactions (ex. Responsiveness and demand)
286
Parietal lobe
Major area of the cortex that is associated with spatial processing and sensory info integration
287
Peers
Ppl of approximately the same age and status who are unrelated to each other
288
Perception
Process of organizing and interpreting sensory info.
289
Perceptual categorization
Grouping together of objects that are similar in appearance
290
Perceptual consistency
Perception of objects as being of constant size, shape and color in spite of physical differences in retinal image of the object
291
Perceptual narrowing
Developmental change in which experience fine-tunes the perpetual system (occur is with in 1st year after birth, gets worse with age)
292
Permissive parenting
High in warmth, low in control; responsive to children’s needs and don’t require children to regulate themselves in appropriate ways
293
Personal domain
Area of social knowledge that pertains to actions in which individual preferences are the main consideration; no wrong or right choices
294
Personal fable
Form of adolescent egocentrism that involves belief of uniqueness of one’s own feelings and thoughts
295
Phallic stage (Freud, psychoanalytic)
3rd stage, sexual pleasure is focused on genitalia (age 3-6)
296
Phenotype
Observable expression of one’s genotype (appearance and behavior)
297
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Disorder related to defective recessive gene on chromosome 12 that prevents metabolism of the amino acid phenylalanine
298
Phonemes
Smallest unit of meaningful sound
299
Phonemic awareness
Ability to identify component sounds in words
300
Phonological recoding skills
Ability to translate letters into sounds and to blend sounds into words; called “sounding out”
301
Phylogenetic continuity
Idea that because of our common evolutionary history humans share many chatter ist is and developmental processes with non-human animals (especially mammals)
302
Piaget’s theory
Posits that cognitive development involves a sequence of four stages (sensorymotor, pre operational, concrete operational and formal operational) that are constructed through the processes of assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration
303
Placenta
Support organ for the fetus; keeps the circulatory system of the mother and fetus separate; semipermeable membrane permit exchange of materials (oxygen and nutrients and waste)
304
Plasticity
Capacity of the brain to be affected by experience
305
Play
Voluntary activities with no specific motivation beyond enjoyment
306
Polygenic inheritance
Inheritance pattern in which traits are governed by more than one gene
307
Polyvictimization
Co-occurrence of multiple forms of maltreatment
308
Popular (peer status)
Children who are view by many as liked and only few as disliked
309
Positive reinforcement
Reward that immediately follows the display of a certain side sired behavior which increases the likely hood of that behavior being shown again
310
Positive youth development
Approach to youth intervention that focused on developing and nurturing strengths and assets rather than correcting weaknesses and deficits
311
Pragmatic cues
Aspects of social context used for word learning (like pointing at things while saying its name)
312
Pragmatics
Knowledge about how language is used
313
Preferential looking technique
Method for studying visual attention in infants that involves showing infants two images simultaneously to see if the infant prefers one over the other
314
Premature
Babies born at 35 weeks after conception or earlier (normal term is 38 weeks)
315
Prenatal testing
Genetic testing used to determine if the fetus is at risk for genetic disorders
316
Preoperational stage (Piaget)
Second stage, children become able to represent experiences in language, mental imagery, and symbolic thought (age2-7)
317
Pre-reaching movements
Clumsy swiping movements made by infants towards objects they see
318
Pretend play
Make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their own
319
Primary mental abilities (Thurstone)
Seven abilities crucial for intelligence (verbal fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, number facility, associative memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed)
320
Private speech (Vygotsky)
Second phase of internalization-of-thought process; children develop self-regulation and problem-solving abilities by telling themselves aloud what to do (as much as their parents did in the first stage)
321
Proactive aggression
Unemotional aggression aimed at fulfilling a need or desire
322
Problem solving
Process of attaining a goal by using strategy to overcome obstacles
323
Pro social behavior
Voluntary behavior intended to benefit others (helping, sharing, caring,…)
324
Prosody
Characteristic rhythm and intonational patterns with which language is spoken
325
Puberty
Developmental period marketed by the ability to reproduce and other dramatic body changes
326
Punishment
Negative stimulus that follows a behavior to reduce the likelihood of it happening again
327
Questionnaire
A method that allows researchers to gather info from a large number of participants simultaneously by presenting Thema. Uniform set of printed questions
328
Random assignment
Procedure in which participant are randomly assigned to conditions
329
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
Active sleep characterized by quick eye movement under closed lids, associated with dreaming in adults
330
Rational learning
Ability to use prior experience to predict what will occur in the future
331
Reactive aggression
Emotionally driven, antagonistic aggression sparked by perceived hostile actions of others
332
Recessive alleles
Alleles that are not expressed if a dominant allele is present
333
Reciprocal determinism
Child-environment influences operate in vote directions; children affect and are affected by the environment
334
Reflexes
Fixed pattern of action that occur in a specific situation
335
Regulatory genes
Control the activity of other genes
336
Rehearsal
Process of repeating info multiple times to aid the memory for it
337
Rejected (peer status)
Children liked only by few peers and displayed by most
338
Relational aggression
Aggresssion that involves excluding others from a social group and attempting to harm peoples relationships; includes rumors, withholding friendship to inflict harm, ignoring peers when angry and trying to get one owns way
339
Reliability
Degree to which independent measures of a given behavior is consistent
340
Role taking
Being aware of the perspective of another person
341
Rumination
Act of focusing on ones own negative emotions and negative self-appraisals and on their cause and consequences without engaging in efforts to improve ones situation
342
Scale error
Attempt by a young child to perform an action on a miniature object that is impossible due to the large discrepancy in relative size of child to object
343
Scientific method
Approach to testing beliefs that involves choosing a question, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions
344
Script
Typical sequence of actions used to organize and interpret repeated events
345
Secondary prevention
Program designed to help individuals at risk for developing a problem with the goal of reverting that development
346
Secular trends
Marked chin ages in physical development that have occurred over generations
347
Secure attachment
Children have a positive a d trusting relationship with the caregiver; in Strange Situation test the child is upset when the caregiver leaves but is happy and quickly recovers when the caregiver returns; use caregiver as a secure base for exploration
348
Secure base
Idea that the presence of the caregiver provides the infant with a sense of security that makes it possible for the child to explore
349
Selective attention
Intentionally focusing on info that is the most relevant to the current goal
350
Self-comforting behavior
Repetitive actions that regulate arousal by providing a mildly positive physical sensation
351
Self-concept
Conceptual system made up of one’s thoughts and attitudes about oneself
352
Self-conscious emotion
Emotions like guilt, shame, pride, and embarrassment that relate to our sense of self and our consciousness of others reactions
353
Self-discipline
Ability to inhibit actions, follow rules, and avoid impulsive reactions
354
Self-distraction
Looking away from an upsetting stimulus to regulate ones level of arousal
355
Self-esteem
Individuals overall subjective evaluation of their worth and feelings they have about that evaluation
356
Self-locomotion
Ability to move oneself through the environment
357
Self-socialization
Active process of children’s cognition leads them to perceive the world and act in accordance with their beliefs and expectations
358
Sensation
Process of forming basic info from the external world via receptors in the sense organs
359
Sensitive period
Period of time in which a developing organism is most sensitive to effects of external factors
360
Sensorimotor stage (Piaget)
1st stage, intelligence is expressed through sensory and motor abilities (0-2 years)
361
Separation anxiety
Feelings of distress in a child when being separated or expect to be separated from their caregiver?those they are emotionally attached to
362
Service learning
Starry for promoting positive youth development that integrates school-based instruction with community involvement in order to promote civic responsibility
363
Sex
Distinction between genetic females (XX) and genetic males (XY) and other genetic variations
364
Sex chromosomes
Chromosomes that determine the biological sex at birth
365
Sexual identity
Ones own sense as a sexual being
366
Sexual orientation
A person preference in gender when it comes to sexual partners
367
Sexual-minority youth
Young folks that experience same-sex attraction
368
Simple view of reading
Perspective that compression depends solely on decoding skill and comprehension of language
369
Situation model
Cognitive processes used to represent a situation or sequence of events
370
Small for gestational age
Babies that weigh significantly less than what is normal for their gestation age
371
Smooth pursuit eye movement
Visual behavior in which viewers gaze shifts at the age rate and angle as a moving object
372
Social comparison
Process of comparing aspects of one’s own psychological, behavioral or physical functioning to that of others to evaluate one self
373
Social competence
Ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive relations with others
374
Social referencing
Use of a parent’s or adult’s facial expression or vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous, or threatening situations
375
Social scaffolding
Process in which more competent people provide a temporary framework that supports child’s thinking at a high level than children could manage on their own
376
Social smiles
Smiles that’s re directed towards people (fist emerge around 1-3 months after birth)
377
Socialization
Process through which children acquire values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behavior that are regarded as appropriate for theories present and future roles in their culture
378
Societal domain
Area of social knowledge that encompasses concepts regarding rules and conventions
379
Sociocultural context
The societal and cultural aspects that influence a child’s environment and development
380
Sociocultural theories
Approaches that emphasize that sociocultural factors greatly influence a child’s behavior
381
Sociodramatic play
Activities in which children enact miniature dramas with others
382
Socioeconomic status
Measure of social class based on income and education
383
Sociometric status
Measure that reflects the degree to which children are liked or disliked by their peers
384
Spermarche
Onset of the capacity of ejaculation
385
Spines
Formation of dendrites of neurons that increase the dendrites capacity to form connections with other neurons
386
Stage theories
Approaches that propose that development involves a large, discontinuous age related stages
387
Standard deviation
Measure of variability of scores in a distribution
388
State
Level of arousal and engagement in the environment
389
Stepping reflex
Neonatal reflex in which infants lifts one leg first, than the other in a coordinated pattern like walking
390
Stereopsis
Process by which the visual cortex combines different neural signals caused by binocular disparity, results in the perception of depth
391
Strange Situation
Procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to assess infant’s attachment to their caregivers
392
Strategy-choice process
Procedure for selecting among alternative ways to solve a problem
393
Stress
Physiological reaction to some change or threat in the environment
394
Structured interview
Research in which participants are all asked to answer the same question
395
Structured observation
Identical situations are presented to each participant and behavior is recorded
396
Subordinate level
Most specific levels within hierarchy categories (ex, poodle)
397
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
Sudden, unexpected death of an infant that is less than 1 year of age and has no identifiable cause
398
Super ego (psychoanalytic theory)
Third personality structure consisting of internalized moral standards
399
Superordinate level
Most general term in category hierarchy (ex. Animal)
400
Swaddling
Soothing technique that involves wrapping a baby tightly into a towel
401
Symbolic representation
Use of one object to stand for another
402
Symbols
Systems for representing thoughts, feelings, knowledge to communicate them with others
403
Synapses
Microscopic junctions between axon terminal of one neuron and dendritic branches of another
404
Synaptic pruning
Normal development process through which synapses that are rarely activated are eliminated
405
Synaptogenesis
Process by which neurons form synapses with other neurons
406
Syntactic bootstrapping
Strategy of using grammatical structure to infer the meaning of a new word
407
Syntax
Rules that specify how different word categories can be combined
408
Task analysis
Research technique of specifying the goals, their obstacles, and the potential solutions involved in problem solving
409
Telegraphic speech
Short utterance that leave out non-essential words
410
Temperament
Individual differences in emotion, activity level, and attention that are stable across contexts; thought to be genetically based
411
Temporal lobe
Major area of cortex that is associated with speech, language, music, and emotional information
412
Teratogen
External agent that can cause death or damage during prenatal dvelopment
413
Tertiary intervention
Program designed to help individuals who already have a problem
414
Test-retest reliability
Degree to which the same results are received Wehen running tests multiple times
415
Theory of mind
Organized understanding of how mental processes such as intentions, desire, beliefs, perceptions, and emotions influence emotions
416
Theory of mind module
Hypothesized brain mechanisms devoted to understanding humans
417
Theory of successful intelligence (Sternberg)
Theory of intellect; based on view that intelligence is the ability to achieve success in life
418
Third-variable problem
Correlation can stem from an unrelated third variable
419
Three-stratum theory of intelligence (Carroll)
Places g at the top of intelligence hierarchy, eight moderately general abilities in the middle, and many specific processes at the bottom
420
Toxic stress
Experience of overwhelming levels of stress without the support of adults to reduce effects of stress
421
Transgender
Individuals that don’t indenting with the gender assigned at birth
422
Tuition
Learning through direct teaching
423
Umbilical cord
Tube containing blood vessels connecting fetus and placenta
424
Unconditioned response (UR)
Reflexive response that is elicited by unconditioned stimulus
425
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Stimulus that evokes a reflexive response
426
Under extension
Overly narrow interpretation of a word’s meaning
427
Uninvolved parenting
Low in warmth, low in control; parents are generally disengaged
428
Universal grammar
Proposed set of highly abstract structures that are common in all languages
429
Validity
Degree to which a test measures what its supposed to measure
430
Variables
Attributes vary across individuals and situations
431
Vicarious reinforcement
Observing someone else receive rewards or punishment
432
Violation-of-expectancy
Procedure used to study infant cognition in which infants are shown an advent that should evoke surprise or interest if it goes against the infants knowledge
433
Visual acuity
Sharpness or clarity of vision
434
Visually-based retrieval
Proceeding directly from the visual form of a word to its meaning
435
Voice onset time (VOT)
Length of time between when air passes through the lips to when the vocal cords start vibrating
436
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
Widely used test designed to measure the intelligence of children age 6 and older
437
Withdrawn-rejected (peer status)
Rejected children who are socially withdrawn
438
Word segmentation
Discovering where words begin and end in fluent speech
439
Working memory
Memory system that involves actively attending to, maintaining and processing info
440
Zygote
Fertilized egg cell
441
Zone of proximal development (Vygotsky)
Space between a learner can do by themselves and what they can do with the help of others
