key theories and terms introduction Flashcards
What is sociology?
The systematic and scientific study of the social world
What is modernity?
A period of dramatic social change during the 19th century (Industrialisation)
What are the key features of modernity?
1) Industrialisation, manufacturing and capitalism
2) democracy and the state
3) knowledge and development of science and rational thinking
What is the enlightenment?
In the late 17th/early 18th century, people began to think more rationally and scientifically instead of religious thinking
What does a good sociologist do?
Create theories by collecting evidence and carrying out research in order to improve society and help governments to develop more effective policies
What should a good sociological theory be?
Unbiased, evidence based, not harmful or unethical, contains a representative sample, can be tested and is relevant
Name 3 modern sociological theories
Functionalism, Marxism, Feminism
What is nature vs nurture?
Nature = behaviour shaped by DNA (innate)
Nurture = behaviour is learned through socialisation
What is socialisation?
The process of learning the culture of a society
What is culture?
The whole way of life as a society, including language, traditions, skills, knowledge, beliefs, values, norms etc
What are norms?
Behaviour which is socially accepted within society
What are values?
General principles or goals that society judges to be important
What is primary socialisation?
Socialisation in the formative years, occurring largely in the family learning basic language and skills
What is secondary socialisation?
Socialisation later in life, at school and in wider society
What is gender?
The social and cultural characteristics associated with being masculine and feminine
What is sex?
Biological differences between male and female bodies
What are gender roles?
The patterns of behaviour expected from men and women arising from biological development (nature) or cultural contributions (nurture)
What is gender role socialisation?
Individuals learn to conform to their expected patterns of behaviour through different agencies of socialisation , e.g parents
What is canalisation?
The way in which parents channel children’s interests into toys or activities that are expected of that particular sex
What is a sociological perspective?
A way of looking at society
What are structural theories?
Sees individuals as entirely shaped by society and behaviour is shaped by social institutions, is macro (large scale)
What are social action theories?
Sees individuals as having free will and choice, believes people make up society, micro approach
What is postmedernism?
Believes there is no single theory able to explain the social world, disagrees with both structural and social action theories
What are consensus theories?
Argues changes that have occurred in society are positive, society is in broad agreement, people share a sense of what is right and wrong and that they belong to society, criticised for overlooking serious issues in society such as social injustice
What are conflict theories?
Regards society as being unequal and oppressive, some groups have more power over others, criticised for failing to acknowledge the positive aspects of society
What type of theory is functionalism?
consensus/structural
Name 2 key thinkers of functionalism
Durkheim and Parsons
How does functionalism view society?
As a system, a set of inter connected parts that depend on each other
What is organic analogy?
Compares society to the human body in the sense that all the parts work together - social institutions are interdependent like organs
What is collective conscience?
Society is in widespread agreement of norms and values, which binds people together
What is social solidarity?
A sense of belonging
What is social cohesion?
People live together in society without tension
What is value consensus?
Sharing the same cultural values, goals and norms
What is anomie?
Chaos/normlessness occurring when one part of society fails
What is the new right?
Political ideology that is anti welfare state and stresses individual self help and reliance, believes in the traditional family values and believes state intervention creates laziness
Who is a key new right thinker?
Charles Murray
What type of theory is marxism?
conflict/structural
Name 2 key marxist thinkers
Marx and Engles
What is marxism?
Disturbance by the effects of industrialisation on workers - low wages, poor conditions, long hours and emerging economic system of capitalism
What is capitalism?
An economic system in which the means of production are owned by the minority
How do marxists view society?
As a system whose driving force is the economy
What are the key marxist concepts?
Almost all societies are based on class divisions between a dominant (bourgeoisie) and a subordinate (proletariat) class, bourgeoisie exploit proletariat for a profit
What 2 types of production do the bourgeoisie own?
means of production and mental production
What are ideologies?
A set of beliefs that serve or benefit powerful groups, spread by by agencies of socialisation/social institutions
What is ideological domination?
Proletariat are brainwashed into thinking society is fair
What is false class-consciousness?
The proletariat’s lack of awareness that they are being exploited
How does the bourgeoisie coerce the proletariat into complying?
Police, court, prisons
What is alienation?
Proletariat’s loss of autonomy, power, control, ownership and ones natural self
What is class polarisation?
Capitalism will ultimately self destruct when there will eventually be only a few rich capitalists with most of the wealth, and the proletariat are left in poverty - widening gap between rich and poor
What is class consciousness?
Awareness of exploitation
What is a communist society?
Everything is shared and owned by the state
What is feminism?
Theory that society is patriarchal and malestream
What type of theory is feminism?
Conflict/structural
When did feminist sociology first become influential?
1970s
When was the first wave of feminism and what was it?
1840s-1920s
Focuses on legal equality- votes for women, property, educational and occupational rights
When/what was the second wave of feminism?
1960s-1990s
Protests for social independence- workplace, sexual violence and reproductive rights
When/what was the third wave of feminism?
1990s-present
Starts to recognise different types of women- intersectionality, third world feminism, LGBTQ+ rights, queer politics, CAGE groups , includes black and marxist feminism , argues previous feminism was essentialist
When/what was the fourth wave of feminism?
Present
Includes the use of internet and social media to expose double standards, contemporary society takes into account ICT and globalisation e.g #metoo campaign
What is essentialism?
The assumption that all women are affected by the patriarchy in the same way (mainly used by white, middle class women)
Why do agencies of socialisation promote patriachal ideologies?
To keep women in a subordinate place in society
What is the glass ceiling?
Women finding it harder to be promoted to top positions in the workplace as they tend to be male dominated
What is the glass cliff?
A woman is appointed to a senior leadership role at a time of chaos or failure to take the blame for a man- seen in politics
What is radical feminism?
Extreme end, are essentialists, women become dependent on men when they bear and care for infants, men are the enemy, systematic oppression- men have secured power over women, patriarchy is a systematic phenomenon
What is a radical feminist solution?
Abolish the patriarchy, get rid of men
What is marxist feminism?
Women are double oppressed through capitalism and the patriarchy, however mainly capitalism, unpaid work ( housework) and paid work is exploiting womens labour, reverse army of labour = women are second choice
What is a marxist feminist solution?
Dismantling the capitalist system and embracing communsim
What is liberal feminsim?
Gender inequality is due to social and cultural attitudes, and stems primarily from the ignorance of men (lack of education and knowledge), sexist and stereotypical attitudes are culturally constructed by gender role socialisation
What is a liberal feminist solution?
Legal changes such as equal wages, no discrimination in the workplace, education, equal access to opportunities in employment/education
What is black feminism?
Criticises the ethnocentricity (cultural bias) of most feminism for focusing on solely white women’s experiences, triple oppression = patriarchy, capitalism, racism, anti-essentialist, wants to incorporate intersectionality
What is a black feminist solution?
Empowering women of colour and amplifying their voices and experiences, matriarchal households, fighting eurocentric/ethnocentric culture
What is poststructuralist feminism?
Accuses white, western, middle class women of essentialism, there is no fixed idea about womanhood, women’s experiences are shaped by social class, age, ethnicity, sexual orientation, physical appearance etc
What is a poststructuralist feminist solution?
Making sure everyone’s experiences are heard and focusing on multiple perspectives
What type of theory is symbolic interactionisim?
social action
Name 2 key thinkers of symbolic interactionism
Mead and Blumer
What is social interactionism?
We make sense of the world by attaching meanings to things, such as symbols that represent something else and get different reactions
What things are not fixed?
Our actions, behaviour and meanings are subject to change as well as our reactions
Who developed the labelling theory?
Becker
What is labelling theory?
Humans interact with each other and create definitions of themselves which have major consequences on their identity and behaviour
What is the process of labelling?
Applying a definition to, or categorising people or groups
What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?
We become what others see us as, also known as the looking-glass self
What is a master status?
A dominant identity overriding other aspects of a persons’ identity
What is postmodernism?
A major intellectual movement arising in the 1970s. Emphasises their dissatisfaction with modern theories as they are outdated and no longer relevant due to todays diverse and globalised society
Name a key postmodernist
Lyotard
How has family changed through pre-modern, modern and postmodern society?
nuclear family, extended family, family diversity
How has work changed through pre-modern, modern and postmodern society?
agricultural, industrial manufacturing jobs, service sector jobs
How has communication changed through pre-modern, modern and postmodern society?
Face to face, television and newspapers, interactive global media
How has religion changed through pre-modern, modern and postmodern society?
tradition magic and superstition, science and technological processes are good, science is no longer a source of truth
How has identity changed through pre-modern, modern and postmodern society?
Group identity, occupation/social class identity, hybrid identity
How has politics changed through pre-modern, modern and postmodern society?
non nation state, nation state, international governments
What is fragmentation?
The postmodernist belief that society has become broken up in terms of culture and diversity, people are far more individualistic and there is less unity
What is rapid social change?
The postmodernist belief that society is in a state of constant change that is unpredictable and marked by risk, instability and chaos
What is globalisation?
The postmodernist belief that societies are becoming more interconnected in the world
In what ways is the world interconnected?
PECS - politically, economically, culturally and socially
What are some strengths of globalisation?
New employment opportunities, instant communication and international culture
What are some limitations of globalisation?
Transnational corporations exploit their workers, global crime and climate change/global warming
Why does Lyotard argue that there should not be only one single theory that explains the social world?
It is too complex and fragmented, so we need various viewpoints (relativist approach)
