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Learning and Behaviour > Key Terms > Flashcards

Key Terms Flashcards

1
Q

Reflex

A

a relationship between a specific event and a simple response to that event (not a particular kind of behaviour)

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2
Q

Modal action pattern

A

a series of related acts found in all/nearly all members of a species (aka fixed action patterns, species-specific behaviour)

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3
Q

General behaviour traits

A

the tendency to engage in a certain kind of behaviour (e.g. shyness, aggression, anxiousness)

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4
Q

Learning

A

a change in behaviour due to experience

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5
Q

Behaviour

A

anything a person/animal does that can be measured (as this is necessary for scientific analysis)

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6
Q

Experience

A

a change in the environment

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7
Q

Stimuli

A

physical changes/environmental events in an organism’s environment that affect behaviour

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8
Q

Habituation

A

a reduction in the intensity or probability of a reflex response as a result of repeatedly evoking the response (i.e. a change in behaviour due to experience)

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9
Q

Experiment

A

a study in which a researcher manipulates one or more variables (independent variables) and measures the effects of this manipulation on one or more other variables (dependent variables)

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10
Q

Between-subjects experiment

A

researcher identifies two or more groups of participants; independent variable made to differ across groups; some participants exposed (experimental group) and some not (control group)

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11
Q

matched sampling

A

experiment participants with identical features identified and paired up then split into different groups

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12
Q

Within-subject experiment

A

participant’s behaviour observed before (baseline period) then during or after (treatment period) experimental treatment

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13
Q

ABA reversal design

A

return to baseline i.e. repeat experiment within same study

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14
Q

Unconditional reflexes

A

reflexes that are present at birth, permanent, and found in all members of species with little variability (e.g. dog salivating when food put into its mouth)

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15
Q

Conditional reflexes

A

reflexes that are not present at birth and must be acquired through experience, and are relatively impermanent compared to unconditional reflexes

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16
Q

Classical conditioning

A

procedure (or experience) of pairing a US and a CS

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17
Q

Higher-order conditioning

A

the procedure of pairing a neutral stimulus with a well-established CS

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18
Q

Third-order conditioning

A

a neutral stimulus is paired with a CS(2) (i.e. a CS that is paired to a CS)

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19
Q

Pseudoconditioning

A

the tendency of a neutral stimulus to elicit a CR after a US has elicited reflex response

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20
Q

Trace conditioning

A

CS begins and ends before US appears (i.e. a gap in between)

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21
Q

Delay conditioning

A

CS and US overlap (i.e. US appears before CS disappears)

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22
Q

Simultaneous conditioning

A

CS and US coincide exactly

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23
Q

Backward conditioning

A

CS follows the US

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24
Q

Contingency

A

an if-then statement (i.e. X occurs if and only if Y occurs)

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25
Q

Interstimulus interval

A

interval between the CS and US

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26
Q

Compound stimulus

A

two or more stimuli presented simultaneously with US, then each presented alone

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27
Q

Overshadowing

A

when one stimulus more effective than the other, lesser stimulus does not become a CS

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28
Q

Latent inhibition

A

the appearance of a stimulus without US interferes with ability of that stimulus to become a CS later

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29
Q

Blocking

A

when NS is part of a compound stimulus with an effective CS, novel stimulus does not become CS

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30
Q

Sensory preconditioning

A

if participant exposed to pairing of two NS without US, then later exposed to NS1 and a CS, participant may have CR to NS2

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31
Q

Intertrial interval

A

gap between successive trials (i.e. between each pairing of CS and US)

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32
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

reappearance of behaviour after extinction

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33
Q

Stimulus-substitution theory

A

CS merely substitutes for US in evoking the reflex response

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34
Q

Preparatory response theory

A

UR is an innate response to deal with US, but CR is a response to prepare for US

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35
Q

Compensatory response theory

A

CR prepares animal for US by compensating for its effects

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36
Q

Rescorla-Wagner model

A

argues that there is a limit to the amount of conditioning that can occur in pairing of two stimuli

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37
Q

Conditioned emotional responses

A

emotional reactions learned through classical conditioning

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38
Q

Counterconditioning

A

use of Pavlovian conditioning to reverse effects of previous conditioning

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39
Q

In vivo exposure therapy

A

person directly exposed to frightening stimulus

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40
Q

Systematic desensitization

A

therapist and client develop list of incrementally more frightening stimuli related to phobia,

then therapist supports client in imagining scenes while instructing them to relax

never experience terrifying fear during this process, but gradual desensitization

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41
Q

Law of effect

A

behaviour is a function of its consequences

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42
Q

Operant learning

A

experiences whereby behaviour is strengthened or weakened by its consequences

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43
Q

Primary reinforcers

A

innately effective, not dependent on learning experiences (aka unconditioned reinforcers)

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44
Q

Satiation

A

phenomenon where PR loses its effectiveness (e.g. the more full you are, the less food works)

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45
Q

Secondary reinforcers

A

not innately effective; the result of learning experiences (aka conditioned reinforcers)

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46
Q

Generalized reinforcers

A

reinforcers that have been paired with many different kinds of reinforcers and can therefore be used in wide variety of situations (e.g. money)

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47
Q

Natural reinforcers

A

events that follow spontaneously/automatically from a behaviour (e.g. pedaling moves bike forward)

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48
Q

Contrived reinforcers

A

events that are provided by someone for the purpose of modifying behaviour (e.g. work bonus)

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49
Q

Contingency

A

the degree of correlation between a behaviour and its consequence

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50
Q

Contiguity

A

the gap in time between a behaviour and its reinforcing consequence

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51
Q

Motivating operation

A

anything that changes the effectiveness of a consequence

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52
Q

Establishing operations

A

motivating operations that increase the effectiveness of a consequence

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53
Q

Abolishing operations

A

motivating operations that decrease the effectiveness of a consequence

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54
Q

Relative value theory

A

relative values of activities determine whether given activity will reinforce another

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55
Q

Premack principle

A

high-probability behaviour reinforces low-probability behaviour

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56
Q

Response-deprivation theory

A

behaviour becomes reinforcing when individual is prevented from engaging in the behaviour at its normal frequency

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57
Q

Two-process theory

A

both classical and operant learning are involved in avoidance learning

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58
Q

One-process theory

A

avoidance learning involves only operant learning

59
Q

Shaping

A

training procedure to reinforce successive approximations of a desired behaviour

60
Q

Behavior chain

A

a connected sequence of behaviour which usually must be completed in a particular order

61
Q

Chaining

A

teaching an animal or person to perform a behaviour chain

62
Q

Backward chaining

A

begin with the last link in chain and work backward toward first element

63
Q

Problem

A

a situation in which reinforcement is available but behaviour necessary to produce it is not

64
Q

Superstition

A

any behaviour that occurs repeatedly even though it does not produce the reinforcers that maintain it

65
Q

Learned helplessness

A

learned through exposure to inescapable aversives

66
Q

Schedules of reinforcement

A

distinctive rules describing the contingency between a behaviour and reinforcement

67
Q

Schedule effects

A

distinctive patterns of behaviour produced under various reinforcement schedules

68
Q

Run rate

A

the rate at which behaviour occurs once it has resumed following reinforcement

69
Q

Extinction

A

a previously reinforced behaviour is never followed by reinforcers → decline in behaviour frequency

70
Q

Extinction burst

A

abrupt increase in behaviour following extinction

71
Q

Duration schedules

A

reinforcement contingent on continuous performance for fixed or variable period of time

72
Q

Noncontingent reinforcement schedules

A

reinforcement delivered independently of behaviour

73
Q

Progressive schedules

A

rules describing contingencies change systematically

74
Q

Progressive ratio

A

requirement for reinforcement increases in predetermined way, often immediately

75
Q

Break point

A

point at which rate of behaviour falls off sharply or stops entirely

76
Q

Ratio stretching

A

thinning a reinforcement schedule

77
Q

Ratio strain

A

when ratio is stretched too rapidly/too far and performance breaks down

78
Q

Compound schedules

A

various combinations of simple schedules

79
Q

Multiple schedule

A

behaviour under influence of two or more simple schedules, each associated with a particular stimulus –> change is signalled

80
Q

Mixed schedule

A

behaviour under influence of two or more simple schedules, each associated with a particular stimulus –> change is not signalled

81
Q

Chain schedule

A

reinforcement delivered only on completion of last in a series of schedules (with signal of change)

82
Q

Tandem schedule

A

reinforcement delivered only on completion of last in a series of schedules (with no signal of change)

83
Q

Cooperative schedule

A

reinforcement dependent on behaviour of two or more individuals

84
Q

Concurrent schedule

A

two or more schedules available at once, so subject can make a choice

85
Q

Partial reinforcement effect

A

tendency of behaviour that has been maintained on an intermittent schedule to be more resistant to extinction than behaviour that has been on continuous reinforcement

86
Q

Discrimination hypothesis

A

theorizes that extinction takes longer after intermittent reinforcement because it is harder to distinguish between extinction and an intermittent schedule than between extinction and CRF

87
Q

Frustration hypothesis

A

nonreinforcement of previously reinforced behaviour is frustrating (an aversive emotional state), so anything that reduces frustration will be reinforcing

88
Q

Sequential hypothesis

A

PRE is a result of differences in sequence of cues during training

89
Q

Response unit hypothesis

A

PRE is an illusion – behaviour on intermittent reinforcement only seems to be more resistant to extinction because we fail to account for the response units required for reinforcement

90
Q

Matching law

A

given two behaviours (B1 and B2), each on its own reinforcement schedule (r1 and r2, respectively), relative frequency of each behaviour equals relative frequency of reinforcement available

91
Q

Disruption theory

A

early theory of punishment that proposed that response suppression was due to disruptive effects of aversive stimuli, so punished behaviour is only temporarily suppressed

92
Q

Response prevention

A

preventing behaviour from occurring by altering environment (e.g. think ahead)

93
Q

Differential reinforcement

A

combine nonreinforcement of unwanted behaviour with reinforcement of another

94
Q

Differential reinforcement of alternative behaviour

A

reinforcement made available for specified alternative to unwanted behaviour (i.e. provide another way to obtain same reinforcement)

95
Q

Differential reinforcement of incompatible behaviour

A

reinforce a behaviour that is incompatible with unwanted behaviour, necessarily reducing rate of unwanted behaviour

96
Q

Differential reinforcement of low rate

A

reinforce behaviour only if it occurs at low rate

97
Q

Delusions

A

false beliefs that often (but not always) have an organic basis

98
Q

Goldiamond’s Paradox

A

the occasional absence of maintaining consequences is required for reinforcement to be available on other occasions

99
Q

Constraint-induced movement therapy

A

restricting movement of normal limb to reinforce consequences of using defective limb

100
Q

Observational learning

A

learning by observing events and their consequences

101
Q

Social observational learning

A

observing behaviour of another individual and consequences of model’s behaviour

102
Q

Asocial observational learning

A

learning from consequences of observed events in the absence of a model

103
Q

Ghost condition

A

solution shown but to observer, does not appear that a model caused the solution

104
Q

Imitation

A

to perform an observed act, whether modeled or not

105
Q

Over-imitation

A

tendency to imitate observed behaviour even when it is clearly irrelevant to producing reinforcement

106
Q

Social cognitive theory

A

cognitive processes account for learning from models (but environmental and biological events also influence behaviour)

107
Q

Operant learning model

A

observational learning is just a variation of operant learning → so modeled behaviour and consequences serve as cues that similar behaviour will be reinforced or punished in the observer

108
Q

Generalization

A

tendency for the effects of a learning experience to spread

109
Q

Vicarious generalization

A

generalization across people/observational learning

110
Q

Response maintenance

A

generalization over time (the opposite of forgetting)

111
Q

Response generalization

A

generalization across behaviours

112
Q

Stimulus generalization

A

tendency for changes in behaviour in one situation to spread to other situations

113
Q

Generalization gradient

A

data on stimulus generalization plotted on a graph shows that the more closely a stimulus resembles the training stimulus, the more similar the behaviour to the training behaviour

114
Q

Mental rotation

A

experiment in which people are shown images that have been rotated and asked if image is inverted

115
Q

Stimulus discrimination

A

tendency for behaviour to occur in certain situations but not in others

116
Q

Discrimination training

A

procedure for establishing discrimination

117
Q

Pavlovian discrimination training

A

one conditional stimulus (CS+) regularly paired with a US and another conditional stimulus (CS-) regularly appears alone

118
Q

Operant discrimination training

A

one stimulus (S+ or SD) indicates behaviour will have reinforcing consequences and another stimulus (S- or Sdelta) indicates behaviour will not have reinforcing consequences

119
Q

discriminative stimuli

A

stimuli that signal different consequences for behaviour

120
Q

Simultaneous discrimination training

A

discriminative stimuli presented at the same time

121
Q

Successive discrimination training

A

S+ and S- alternate (usually randomly) – when S+ appears, behaviour reinforced; when S- appears, behaviour not reinforced

122
Q

Matching to sample

A

task is to select the stimulus that matches a standard using two or more comparison stimuli (i.e. alternatives) which include S+ and one or more S-

123
Q

Errorless discrimination training

A

S- presented in very weak form and for short periods → disc seldom pecked → then strength of S- increased but bird still did not peck it

124
Q

Differential outcomes effect

A

improvement in discrimination learning as a result of different consequences

125
Q

Concept

A

any class the members of which share one or more defining features

126
Q

Stimulus control

A

when discrimination training brings behaviour under the influence of discriminative stimuli

127
Q

Peak shift

A

phenomenon in generalization data for peak behaviour to shift away from S-

128
Q

Forgetting

A

deterioration in performance of learned behaviour following retention interval

129
Q

Retention interval

A

a period during which learning or practice of the behaviour does not occur

130
Q

Free recall

A

individual given opportunity to perform previously learned behaviour → if the performance takes longer or there are more errors, forgetting has occurred

131
Q

Prompted/cued recall

A

a variation of free recall – consists of presenting prompts (that were not present during training) to increase likelihood behaviour will be produced

132
Q

Relearning method

A

measures forgetting in terms of amount of training required to reach previous level of performance

133
Q

Recognition

A

participant has to identify the material previously used (e.g. multiple choice tests)

134
Q

Delayed matching to sample

A

matching to sample but participant prevented from performing following sample until delay ends

135
Q

Extinction method

A

when extinction proceeds more rapidly after retention interval than it would have immediately after training, forgetting has occurred

136
Q

Gradient degradation

A

a flattening of a generalization gradient → to the extent that training establishes stimulus control, any decline in steepness of generalization gradient indicates forgetting

137
Q

Overlearning

A

phenomenon that learning continues even after we seem to have achieved mastery

138
Q

Proactive interference

A

previous learning can interfere with recall

139
Q

paired associate learning

A

technique in which person must learn a list of word pairs so that when given first word, participant must produce the second

140
Q

Retroactive interference

A

when what we learn increases forgetting of previous learning

141
Q

Context

A

stimuli present during learning that are not directly relevant to what is learned (e.g. studying environment)

142
Q

Cue-dependent forgetting

A

when stimuli of learning context absent, performance suffers

143
Q

Instinctive drift

A

tendency of an animal to revert to a fixed action pattern, which sets limits on learning

144
Q

Continuum of preparedness

A

an animal comes to a learning situation genetically prepared to learn (in which case learning proceeds quickly), unprepared (in which case learning proceeds steadily but more slowly) or contraprepared (in which case learning is slow and irregular)

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