Key terms Flashcards
State of Nature
a theory on how people might have lived before societies, or any governments existed
natural rights
the right to life, liberty, and property; believed to be given by God; no government may take away
social contract
A powerful, foundational agreement between people and their government in which
citizens consent to be governed so long as the government protects their natural rights.
direct democracy
A form of democracy where there are no elected leaders, and people participate
personally in making government decisions instead of choosing representatives to do this for them.
popular vote
The outcome of a democratic election in which all qualified voters are eligible to
participate, and the winner is the person who receives the largest number of individual votes (majority
rule).
popular sovereignty
the people ‘reign’ or control their government. People show they ‘reign’ over
government by selecting their leaders and laws (a republic type of government).
due process
The requirement that when government deals with all people, government must have fair
procedures that it follows and which it applies equally to all. In the 5th and 14th amendments.
Declaration of Independence
The original document, authored principally by Thomas Jefferson, that
“birthed”; the United States and started the Revolutionary War. It lists important natural rights and
grievances against the King of England, as well as declaring independence.
Articles of Confederation
Confederation: The first government of the United States, consisting of a unicameral (one-
chamber) Congress. Did not permit Congress to tax, regulate foreign or interstate commerce, or enforce
its laws. The Articles of Confederation failed as it formed an alliance of sovereign state governments
with very weak national government.
Shay’s Rebellion
Daniel Shay threatened rebellion against the Confederation government because of its
many weaknesses. Led to the Confederation Congress inviting the State Governments to attend the
Constitutional Convention.
Constitutional Convention
a meeting in Philadelphia, 1787 where twelve States sent Government
leaders and they took approximately 100 days to write a 2nd U.S. Constitution comprised of three,
separate Branches of Government, newly created Checks &Balances, with elections for the new
national leaders, their powers, etc.
Virginia Plan
Plan: A plan proposed by the representatives of Virginia at the Constitutional Convention for a
two-house (that is, bicameral) legislature, wherein the number of a state’s representatives in each
chamber would be based on the state population. Also wanted the Executive and Judicial Branches.
bicameral legislature
A lawmaking body (or Congress) in the legislative branch that consists of two
separate chambers or two separately elected groups of officials, such as Senators and Representatives,
like the Virginia Plan. Bi, meaning “two”,and camera, meaning “chamber” are from Latin.
New Jersey Plan
A plan proposed by the representatives of New Jersey at the Constitutional
Convention that called for a one-house national legislature in which each state would have one vote.
Also wanted the Executive and Judicial Branches.
unicameral legislature
A lawmaking body (Congress) in the legislative branch that consists of only one
chamber, like the New Jersey Plan wanted as well as also in the Articles of Confederation. Uni, meaning
“one” and camera, meaning “chamber” are from Latin.
great compromise
Also known as the Connecticut Compromise, this was a 1787 agreement that
created a bicameral legislature (Congress) in the new 2nd United States Constitution, with representation
based on population size in the House of Representatives and equal representation of states in the
Senate.
three fifths compromise
During the creation of the U.S. Constitution, an agreement made that called
for counting of all a state’s free population and 60 percent of its slave population for the twin purposes
of federal taxation and representation in Congress.
separation of powers
The division of a government’s powers among three separate branches of
government, managed by different groups of people. In the United States, the three branches of
government are legislative, executive, and judicial. Legislative also means propose new laws; Executive
means enforce or administer the laws; and Judicial means judge or interpret the laws in court cases.
checks and balances
Extra constitutional powers that allow each branch of government to limit or
check the exercise of power of the other two branches or approve their actions. This system requires
different parts of government to work together and find agreement in order to accomplish new official
actions.
federal system or federalism
A form of government in which power is divided between state
governments and a national government (different levels with different powers).
ratification
The action of signing or otherwise officially approving a treaty, contract, or agreement,
making it legally valid.
Ratification Debate
about whether to approve the 2nd US Constitution
between the Federalists and Anti-federalists.
the federalist papers
A series of 85 essays written and published by several of the Founding
Fathers—Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay—in 1887-88, in favor of ratifying the newly
written 2nd US Constitution.
faction
Also called an interest group, this is a group of people who gather to petition government for
their special concern or try to take it over. In Federalist #10, James Madison explains how the 2nd U.S
Constitution stops extreme factions because of electing leaders (a republic), three Branches, and checks
& balances.
republic
A system of government in which political power is held by the people through their ability to
elect representatives who make laws on their behalf.
Bill of Rights
Collectively, the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791; they list
citizens’ civil liberties and civil rights. The Anti-Federalists advocated for a Bill of Rights to be added to the
2nd US Constitution.
Legislative Branch
Congress will Legislate or Propose/Write-Up/Debate/Vote on New Laws
enumerated or expressed powers
National Powers given explicitly to the Federal Government,
specifically the Congress by the Constitution (Article I, Section 8) to regulate (pass laws on)
interstate and foreign commerce, raise and support armies, declare war, coin money, and
conduct foreign affairs, tax and borrowing money.
interstate commerce clause
One of the enumerated (express) powers of Congress; this is the
power to regulate commerce and trade between two or more states.
inherent powers
National Powers of the president or Congress that are neither enumerated
nor implied but assumed to exist as a direct result of the country’s existence. Example: buying
land to add to the Country.
implied powers
A power not expressly defined in the Constitution but ‘implied’ to Congress
through a loose interpretation (or stretching the words) of the ‘Necessary and Proper’ clause =
Elastic Clause.
bipartisan
Meaning “two factions”, or both political parties agree on a particular government
action, issue, or law.
oversight
The right and responsibility of one body or branch of government to review and
monitor other bodies; for example, Congress oversees federal agencies and programs which are
managed by the executive branch.
discretionary spending
In the context of the U.S. budget, pending that can be altered from year to year
through the congressional appropriations process, including spending on scientific research, housing
assistance, veterans’ health care, education, and transportation.
budget resolution
A plan for the government will receive in revenue and spend over the next fiscal year,
including a set of budget priorities and discretionary spending limits.
pork- barrel spending
spending on often unnecessary local projects that benefit a specific member of
Congress’s district or state.
advice and consent
A constitutional power given to the Senate only, stating that presidential
nominations for executive and judicial positions take effect only when confirmed by the Senate. Also,
foreign treaties become official only when the Senate approves them by a two-thirds vote. Also called
confirmation.
impeachment
Legislative process for removing government officials suspected of “high crimes and
misdemeanors”, including judges and even the president; impeachment requires a majority vote in the
House of Representatives on articles of impeachment and then the support of two-thirds of the Senate
for conviction and removal.
supermajority
Also referred to as an absolute majority, this is any number greater than 50%.
committee
Small set of representatives or senators tasked with considering, researching, introducing,
and investigating particular policy areas. Also called congressional committees.
standing committee
A permanent committee that exists from session to session for the purpose of
researching, writing, and introducing proposed pieces of legislation in a particular policy topic area.
select committees
A temporary congressional committee established to investigate a particular issue or
policy area not covered by a standing committee.
joint committees
A committee containing members of both the House of Representatives and the
Senate who work together on a particular issue such as economic or tax policies.
conference committees
a type of temporary joint committee whose job it is to form one version – one
unified bill from different versions of the same piece of legislation passed by the House of
Representatives and the Senate to be sent to the President.
rules committee
In the House of Representatives, a powerful committee that determines the
parameters for debate and amendments to a piece of legislation. In the Senate, a similar group, the
Senate Committee on Rules and Administration, is less powerful, as it does not set the terms of debate.
census
A population count which, in the United States, is constitutionally required every ten years as
the first step in congressional reapportionment.
reapportionment
The once-per-decade process of assigning the number of House of Representatives’
435 seats to districts in the 50 states according to population, as determined by the most recent U.S.
census. The Census Bureau decides how many representatives each State gets based on population size.
redistricting
After reapportionment, this is when each State Government will re-draw the boundary
lines of each electoral voting districts to accommodate changes in a state’s population based on the last
census with the goal is of creating congressional districts that are as equal as possible in population.
gerrymandering
When redistricting is done illegally to favor one political party. The word happened
because of a colorful origin (Elbridge Gerry, Massachusetts governor, signed a bill in 1812 that created a
partisan district in the Boston area that was shaped like a salamander; Gerry + salamander became
“gerrymander”), this is the manipulation of political advantage by re-drawing electoral districts,
producing districts biased in favor of one particular political party.
majority party
In either the House of Representatives or the Senate—or both, collectively—the political
party with more seats.
minority party
In either the House of Representatives or the Senate—or both, collectively—the political
party with fewer seats.
speaker of the house
In the House of Representatives, the elected leader of the majority party who
serves as the chief presiding officer; makes committee assignments, controls the agenda and voting, etc
majority leader
In the U.S. House of Representatives, second-in-command to the Speaker of the House;
both are affiliated with the party with majority control.
minority leader
the elected leader of the minority party. In the U.S. House of Representatives, the
leader of the minority party, elected by the party members in the House.
majority whip
In either the House of Representatives or the Senate, a leader from the majority political
party whose job it is to help coordinate strategy and maintain discipline among the members of the
party. The term derives from a hunting term, “whipper-in,” whose job is to prevent hounds from
wandering away from the pack.
minority whip
In either the House of Representatives or the Senate, a leader from the minority political
party whose job it is to help coordinate strategy and maintain discipline among the members of the
party. The term derives from a hunting term, “whipper-in,” whose job is to prevent hounds from
wandering away from the pack.
president pro tempore
In the U.S. Senate, the person who serves as the Chief Presiding Officer in the
absence of the Vice President; this role is often ceremoniously given to the longest-serving senator of
the majority party.
filibuster
A political procedure allowed in the US Senate where one senator will continue talking to
delay or prevent debate on a proposal, usually by holding the floor and speaking continuously, refusing
to yield or stop. To break a filibuster, 60 of the 100 senators present must vote to end it (called a cloture
vote).
cloture
A procedural mechanism in the U.S. Senate whereby 60 members (three-fifths) of the entire
Senate vote to end a filibuster.
Executive Branch
President will Execute, Enforce, Administer or Implement the Laws
commander in chief
Constitutional power giving the president authority over all parts of the U.S.
military, including promoting and dismissing military commanders and officers.
chief executive
The president’s power to enforce all laws thus overseeing all government workers that
help him enforce laws. The president can require ‘reports’ from any government worker on how they
are enforcing the laws.
Monroe Doctrine
A principle of U.S. policy, first articulated by President James Monroe, declaring that
interventions by European powers in the affairs of the nations of the Western Hemisphere would be
considered as intolerable acts of aggression by the United States.
executive memorandum
A presidential tool similar to an executive order, used to manage the
operations of the various departments and agencies of the federal government.
executive orders
A written directions to a government agency issued by a president in the absence of
congressional action to pursue a particular course of action. Generally, such an order is where the
president changes an existing law and orders the workers to enforce it the new way. It can be subject to
challenge through the courts.
executive agreements
Formal agreements between the President and other Countries that do not need
to be confirmed by the US Senate. In the United States, a president can make such an agreement
without ratification by the Senate as a foreign treaty would need to be.
recess appointment
An appointment of a federal official by the president at a time when the Senate is
not in session and is therefore unable to confirm appointments.
veto
The power of a president to reject a law passed by Congress. Veto is a Latin term meaning
“I forbid.”
line item veto
The ability of an executive to reject specific portions of a piece of legislation rather than
reject the entire bill. In the United States, most governors have this power, but the power of line-item
vetoes for the president has been ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
administrative agencies
Government organizations created by Congress to enforce laws, policies, and
government programs. Administrative agencies are organized under the president in the executive
branch and collectively employ millions of federal workers.
Judicial Branch
Judges will Judge, Interpret or Apply the Laws in Court Cases
civil cases
Court cases based on civil law, not criminal law. Civil law regulates disagreements between
individuals and companies, individuals and government agencies, and foreign individuals or
governments, including questions of constitutionality.
criminal cases
Court cases based on crimes which cause harm to other persons or property.
Government attorneys will prosecute those who are accused of breaking criminal laws.
common law
The form of law that is based on custom, precedent, and court decisions in England,
rather than on legislative decree.
jurisdiction
The particular area or territory officially assigned to a Judge to receive and decide court
cases. The US Supreme Court has both original and appellate jurisdiction.
Original Jurisdiction
the power of a court to hear & decide a court case originally, or first.
Appellate Jurisdiction
the
power of a court to judge court cases appealed up to them.
judicial review
A principle that courts have the power to overturn laws passed by Congress and even
actions of the president if such laws or actions conflict with the Constitution. This power was established
in the case Marbury v. Madison.
judicial restraint
A viewpoint that judges should be reluctant to overturn the acts of Congress, the
President, or the states, deferring decisions (and thus, policymaking) to elected branches of
government. Proponents of judicial restraint focus on using stare decisis, and use a narrow, strict
interpretation of the Bill of Rights.
strict constructionist
An approach to interpreting the Constitution based on the idea that the national
government can only do those things which are specifically mentioned in the Constitution.
stare decisis
Meaning “let the decision stand,” this is a principle that courts should rely on previous
decisions and established precedents (a preceding court case’s decision) as they make decisions.
judicial activism
A viewpoint that U.S. courts should defend individual rights and liberties and stop
actions by other branches of government that they see as infringing on those rights.
loose construction
An approach to interpreting the Constitution based on the idea that judges can
reinterpret constitutional language to create new legal standards, appropriate for changing conditions.
amicus briefs
A legal written argument (that is, a “brief”) filed with a court by an individual or group
who is not a party to a case but has an interest in the case’s outcome, such as an interest group.
Federalism or Federalist System
Different Levels of Government with Different Powers
Federalism or a federal system
A system and structure of government that divides
constitutional power and authority between the national government and state governments.
reserved powers
Any powers not prohibited by the Constitution or delegated to the national
government; so powers reserved to the states and denied to the federal government as given in the
Tenth Amendment.
concurrent powers
Powers shared by state and federal governments: to tax, to borrow money, to build
infrastructure, to establish courts, to establish legal punishments, and to declare eminent domain.
Supremacy Clause
Article VI in the US Constitution says that the Federal Government laws and actions
are supreme above state or local government laws and actions.
Full Faith and Credit Clause
Article IV in the US Constitution requires State Government to accept the
legal decisions, actions and contracts from other states.
Hard money
Direct money donations to candidates from individuals or interest groups.
Soft Money
Direct money donations to political parties.
Federal Election Campaign Act
A 1971 law to limit “hard money” donations to candidates. Started the
requirement for interest groups to have their own PAC – Political Action Committee; and for all
candidates and PACs to report their hard money contributions to the FEC – Federal Election
Commission.
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act
A 2002 law to limit “soft money” donations to political parties.
incumbents
A candidate for office who presently holds that office and is running for re-election.
incumbency advantage
The tendency of voters to re-elect the candidate who is currently serving in a
position or to select candidates who have previously served. Incumbents have name recognition
advantage, have much higher ability to fundraise money.
primary election
Held January through June before the general November election in most States. Pre-elections among members of the same political party, designed to narrow the field or identify the
person who will ultimately serve as the one political party’s nominee on the November Election Ballot
for a particular office. Primaries can be ‘open’ or ‘closed.’
Open Primaries
Voters can decide which one political party’s candidates they want to vote for in an
open primary, can only select one party when they vote.
Closed Primaries
Voter must be registered in a political party to vote in a closed primary.
caucus
A political party meeting of party members where delegates are selected to support a candidate
for a party’s presidential nomination or other party issues are discussed. Caucuses occur at local, state,
and national levels.
National (or nominating) convention
a national political party meeting, where all the political party
leaders in each State get together and officially count up who won the most primaries and caucuses
across the country. Whoever wins the most is the presidential ‘nominee’ = get their name on the
November ballot for their party.
independent voters
voters who indicate no preference for one political party or another.
“safe” states
A state with historically strong leanings toward a particular political party, requiring
relatively little effort from that party to win campaigns. The opposite of a safe state is a “swing state”
swing states
States with a history of voting for both political parties in recent presidential elections,
considered by both sides as ripe for persuading.
swing voters
voters who don’t have a definite preference for the candidate of a political party, and
therefore are open to voting the candidate of any political party.
general election
The November election where candidates for elected office are formally chosen, or
where the allocation of presidential electoral votes is decided.
electors
Persons selected by each state to cast Electoral College votes.
electoral votes
Electoral College votes which, according to the Constitution, are the votes that actually
elect a president.
winner- take- all
A system of voting in which the candidate who wins a plurality of the popular vote is
elected. In U.S. presidential campaigns, most states use this system, awarding all their Electoral College
votes to the candidate who wins 50.01% or more of the popular vote.
district method
Method of allocating the Electoral College votes of a state in a presidential election
among candidates according to the popular vote in each congressional district. The district method is
rare, with most states using the winner-takes-all method.
faithless electors
Disparaging name for electors who violate their pledge to support a particular
presidential candidate voting instead for someone else.
congressional voting district
One of 435 legally established voting areas of a state represented by one
member of the House of Representatives. Each congressional voting district is approximately equal in
population to all other congressional districts (that’s the equal proportions method).
interest groups
A public or private association of individuals or organizations that attempt to influence
government decision-making and/or public policy.
trade or professional association
an interest group comprised of many groups or institutions with
similar interests (usually individual businesses joining together in a larger interest group.)
public interest groups
A group that pursues policies or goods that members perceive to be useful for
most or all citizens.
private interest groups
A group that pursues government laws or policies only for themselves/their
members (for particularized benefits).
particularized
benefits that are specific to an individual or group and from which others can be
excluded.
legislative liaison
An individual who represents a government institution to other governmental
decision-makers.
lobbyist
A representative of a particular interest or organization, usually employed for pay, who
attempts to influence legislators.
inside lobbying
Attempt to directly influence governmental officials such as legislators or their aides.
outside lobbying
Attempt to influence governmental officials such as legislators or their aides
indirectly, by going to the public and influencing the public’s opinion.
Political Action Committees
Each interest group must have their own PAC to collect funds from
donors and make limited campaign contributions (hard money donations) to political candidates; and
give soft money donations to political parties.
Super PACs
A nonprofit political action committee (PAC), created to raise and spend unlimited amounts
of money to influence an election, that becomes "super" when it can spend unlimited amount of money
on ‘political speech’ to help or hurt candidates. Super PACs cannot donate to or coordinate with
candidates. Super PACs started from the Citizens United v FEC court case.
bundling
A fund-raising strategy in which individuals (“bundlers”) collect individual private campaign
donations and submit them as a single contribution. The bundler, sometimes an interest group, achieves
greater political influence in this way.
scorecards
scorecards: Interest Groups rate or score incumbents on how well the incumbents vote for laws in favor
of the group.
amicus briefs
A legal written argument (that is, a “brief”) filed with a court by an individual or group
who is not a party to a case but has an interest in the case’s outcome.
registration
The process of demonstrating to state election officials that an individual meets the
qualifications to participate in an election.
literacy tests
A detailed exam on reading ability and civic knowledge, historically used to prevent
African Americans in the South from voting. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 ended literacy tests.
Disenfranchise
Being denied the right to vote through literacy tests or poll taxes.
poll taxes
Historically in the United States, a fee required with the intention of preventing African
Americans from voting. Poll taxes were banned by the Twenty-Fourth Amendment.
online voter registration
a voter registration process that can be completed over the internet without a
paper application or signature.
Motor Voter Law
A 1993 law, officially named the National Voter Registration Act but commonly called
the Motor Voter Act or Law, that allows voters to register when they sign up for a driver’s license or
some other government services.
voting eligible population (VEP)
The percentage of citizens who, whether registered or not, are eligible
to vote because they meet age and citizenship qualifications and are mentally competent and not
imprisoned.
voter turnout
the number of registered voters who actually vote in an election.
compulsory voting laws
Laws in some countries (not the United States) that require citizens to vote in
elections.
retrospective voting
A vote cast by a citizen on the basis of events that have transpired in the past.
prospective voting
A vote cast by a citizen on the basis of what a candidate is expected to do in the
future.
straight ticket voting
An approach to voting where a voter selects all candidates on the ballot from a
single party.
ballot fatigue
The tendency of a voter to select a candidate in the important offices only, and then stop
voting before selecting candidates for lower offices.
civil rights
Constitutional guarantees of equal opportunity and protection such as a search warrant, due
process, fair trials, etc. Civil rights are prescriptions from government (increases government’s power to
give them to us; ‘rights require government’).
civil liberties
Freedoms guaranteed to individuals in the U.S. Constitution’s Bill of Rights; these liberties
restrain or stop government, thus protecting individual choices (free exercise of religion, freedom of
speech, etc.). Civil Liberties are proscriptions (limits) on government’s power (Liberties limit
government).
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Federal law that prohibits discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or
national origin; unequal application of voter registration requirements; and segregation in schools,
employment, and public accommodations.
Civil Rights Movement
A 1950-60s social movement led by Martin Luther King, Jr., promoting
nonviolent civil disobedience against racial discrimination. Ultimately, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was
made law, along with other important laws against racial discrimination.
equal treatment
the equal treatment of people regardless of who they are. Required under the 14th
Amendment’s ‘equal protection’ clause.
rational basis test
A set of criteria the Supreme Court uses to analyze and decide court cases on types
of discrimination. The accuser must prove discrimination to the Court.
intermediate scrutiny test
A set of criteria used by a court to decide if the government is discriminating
on the basis of gender or sex.
strict scrutiny test
A rigorous set of criteria that courts use to analyze cases to see if a law or regulation
is needed because of a “compelling state interest.” Used in discrimination court cases on fundamental
freedoms or protected classes.
reconstruction
An era in U.S. history from 1865 to 1877, following the Civil War, Reconstruction
addressed the transition of slave states to non-slave economies and rendered full freedom, citizenship,
and equality to African Americans.
Ku Klux Klan
A terrorist hate organization that espouses white supremacy, white nationalism, and anti-
immigration ideologies, first established in the South after the Civil War. The name probably derives
from the Greek word kyklos, meaning “circle”, plus clan.
white flight
A phrase describing a social phenomenon occurring mainly in the 1950s and 1960s; this was
the large-scale migration of Whites from racially mixed urban areas into racially homogeneous suburbs.
racial profiling
The act of making judgments about a person—usually negative— based solely on
stereotypes about the person’s race. This is illegal.
public
the part of our lives where we interact with others that are not intimate to us; in a shared or
public space.
private
the part of our lives when we are alone or with intimate others, which takes place outside of
public spaces.
ex post facto laws
Literally meaning “from a thing done afterward,” this is a law that applies
retroactively, such as making a legal action suddenly illegal, with punishments. The U.S. Constitution
prohibits Congress from passing any retroactive, or ex post facto, laws.
bill of attainder
This bill or law is not allowed in the US Constitution where Congress would pass a law
to declare a person guilty of a crime, give a punishment, yet without a trial. The U.S. Constitution
prohibits Congress from passing any bills of attainder.
habeas corpus
Meaning, in Latin, “show me the body,” this is the right for a jailed citizen to appear
before a judge to hear about a criminal charge. Habeus corpus prohibits imprisoning people without due
process of law.
search
the effort to locate documents and contraband (illegal materials).
search warrant
A legal document issued by a court authorizing the police to search for a person or
property for evidence of a crime. Exceptions to police needing search warrants are: - when item/person
is in plain sight, when there is no assumption of privacy (example - searching a work computer), when
police feel the illegal material will be taken if they go to get a search warrant, if person gives permission
for police to search without a warrant, or criminal activity is being committed.
probable cause
The legal standard for determining whether a search or seizure is constitutional or
whether a crime has been committed; this is a lower threshold than the standard of proof needed at a
criminal trial.
exclusionary rule
Based on the Supreme Court case Mapp v. Ohio, this rule states that evidence
obtained as a result of an illegal search or seizure cannot be used in a criminal trial.
double jeopardy
A legal prohibition against trying an individual (that is, placing the person “in
jeopardy”) twice for the same crime, established by the Fifth Amendment.
constitutional rights
rights granted to you in the Constitution.
statutory right
a right granted to you in a law or statute.
voir dire
The questioning of potential jurors to determine their fitness to sit on a jury. The term is
French, meaning “to speak the truth.”
economic liberty
the right of individuals to obtain, use, and trade things of value for their own benefits
eminent domain
A power of government to take and use private property for a public purpose after
compensating its owner; also known as “the takings clause” of the Fifth Amendment. Also a concurrent
power.
Establishment Clause
Listed in the First Amendment of the Bill of Rights, the Establishment clause
prohibits the federal government from passing laws to create or promote a state-sponsored religion.
Free Exercise Clause
Located in the First Amendment of the Bill of Rights, the Free Exercise clause
protects the choice of each person to adopt and practice individual religious beliefs, forbidding the
government to control or restrict such beliefs and practices.
conscientious objectors
Individuals who refuse to perform military service (draft) on the grounds of
their freedom of thought, conscience, or religious beliefs. Allowed in the Gillette v US court case.
Civil War Amendments
The Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth amendments, which were added to
the Constitution after the Civil War; these amendments ended slavery, provided equal protection under
the law, and granted voting rights to men of color.
Equal Protection Clause
A clause in Section 1 of the Fourteenth Amendment that prohibits the
government from denying any person equal protection under the law.
Jim Crow laws
A set of laws used to discriminate against African Americans and deny rights to newly
freed slaves after the Civil War. The name “Jim Crow” came from a minstrel routine, “Jump Jim Crow,”
that turned into a derogatory term for African Americans. Examples of those laws were literacy tests,
poll taxes, grandfather clauses, etc.
Equal Rights Amendment
An unratified (unapproved) amendment to the U.S. Constitution,
proposed in 1972, that would require equal treatment for all citizens regardless of sex. The original date
of ratification by at least 38 states was March 1979; 35 states ratified it. The ERA is still considered by
some to be ratifiable, although it is not universally accepted that this is constitutional.
mass media
Types of technology that communicate to large numbers—a mass—of people; present-day
mass media include newspapers, radio, broadcast and cable television, films, magazines, compact discs,
podcasts, and many forms of digital/social media.
broadcast media
TV and radio stations regulated by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).
hypodermic theory
A model of communications suggesting that an intended message is directly
received (“injected”) and completely accepted & believed by the receiver.
cultivation theory
The idea that media presents a version of reality that eventually “cultivates” a
worldview generally accepted by the population.
minimal effects theory
the idea that the media have little effect on citizens. Media affects us indirectly
through others.
framing
the process of giving a news story a specific context or background. (The media explaining the
news with facts, opinions, and background context.)
priming
The process of predisposing media readers or viewers to think and act a particular way.
Overt media
when the media’s message makes it clear to the reader or viewer that the information
offers only one side of the political debate or open stating their political ideology. The Media discloses
their own political beliefs while reporting the news/framing a story.
Covert media
the media’s political messages presented under the pretense that it is neutral. The
Media does not disclose their own political beliefs while reporting the news.
agenda setting
The ability of powerful media to focus public attention on particular issues or topics via
strength of its coverage. The media attempts to get the government to do something about these issues in
several stories.
horse race journalism
The common media practice of only reporting which candidates are ahead in the
public opinion polls. This journalism does not report on why the candidates are ahead or what their
issues are. Horse-race journalism leads to the bandwagon effect.
bandwagon effect
A tendency by the media to increase coverage of candidates who are currently
polling well.
pack journalism
A style of journalism in which all journalists cover the same issues and stories rather
than seeking out their own stories.
prior restraint
The legal suppression of speech or media coverage prior to public speaking or
publication; a form of government censorship; the First Amendment significantly limits prior restraint
(that is, favors freedom of speech and the press). Only if immediate, irreparable harm happens to
national security.
equal time rule
A provision of the 1934 Communications Act, this federal rule requires broadcasters to
provide equal opportunities for airtime and advertising to all legally qualified candidates for the same
office.
fairness doctrine
A federal rule, repealed in 1987, that required media broadcasters to provide
balanced airtime to all sides of an issue
sunshine laws
A law that mandates government proceedings and meeting documents be made
available to the public.
Freedom of Information Act (FOIA)
A 1967 act that requires the executive branch of the U.S.
government to provide information requested by citizens; a “sunshine law” that allows citizens to know
what the government does. Helps the Media to be a ‘political watchdog’ to report on scandals or
corruption in the government.
mandate
In politics, newly elected officials want to claim more authority and influence an elected
official by claiming they win with substantial popular support. A politician with a mandate has
confidence to push for desired policies, knowing people will probably maintain their support.
political socialization
the life-long process by which we are trained to understand and join a country’s
political world.
political ideologies
A consistent philosophy about the structure, power, and purpose of government.
American political ideologies include progressive, liberal, moderate, independent, conservative, and
libertarian.
liberal
a political ideology that values equality first in government laws and actions. Promotes larger
government & higher taxes to enforce equality, more welfare and economic control over private
businesses.
Classical Liberalism
a political ideology that believes in individual rights, liberties and freedoms. Views
government with suspicion and rejects government intervention. The Founding Fathers were classical
liberals.
conservative
A political ideology that values personal freedom first with less government taxes and
regulations over businesses, less welfare, and government spending.
gender gap
the marked differences in political opinion between men and women.
political elites
A community and/or political leader who shapes or even dominates public opinion by
providing information to citizens and fostering political strategy.
research
learning background information before making a decision.
heuristics
rules of thumb (cues or labels from others, organizations)
muckraking
the process of journalists seeking out information on scandals or misconduct in
government, politics, or business. Ties into the Media being our political watchdog.
political cultures
shared political attitudes, values, and beliefs.
