Key terms

Question 1

who established methodological behaviourism?

Answer 1

john watson

Question 2

who made radical behaviourism?

Answer 2

skinner

Question 3

why was there such an emphasis on behaviourism at the time?

Answer 3

reaction to freud who discreditted psych as a science

Question 4

discuss skinner

Answer 4

respondent/ classical conditioning –> association
how the consequences of actions impact the probability of actions being respeated

Question 5

how to do a behavioural assessment

Answer 5

(1) define target behaviour precisely- how we wish to change the frequency, specific behaviour
(2) Identify functional relations between the target behavior and its antecedents and consequences. (when it happens, who is there, what was said, how did they act, environment, use multiple incidents so we can see if there is a pattern) do a functional analysis
(3) create intervention, test and recreate if needed

Question 6

4 term contingency

Answer 6

EO- establishing operation (mjust consider broader context of how reinforcers will work)
A- antecedent
B- behaviour
C- consequences

Question 7

reinforcement

Answer 7

the procedure of providing consequences for a behavior that increase or maintain the frequency of that behavior

Question 8

positive reinforcer

Answer 8

a reinforcing event in which something is added following a behavior

Question 9

negative reinforcer, example?

Answer 9

a reinforcing event in which something is removed following a behavior
a patient wont eat unless spoon fed, so the feeders start dropping food on her dress whenever they feed her. the woman will then feed herself in order to avoid getting her dress dirty

Question 10

extinction

Answer 10

Behavior is maintained by its consequences. Therefore, preventing the consequences that maintain a behavior should weaken it. Withholding the reinforcers that maintain a target behavior

Question 11

punishment

Answer 11

the procedure of providing consequences for a behavior that decrease the frequency of that behavior- these are rarely used and never too severe

Question 12

noam chomsky

Answer 12

an article criticising skinnerrian thinking (book called verbal behaviour).

Question 13

antecedents

Answer 13

triggers to a behaviour

Question 14

Continuous recording

Answer 14

method to count / record behaviour.
recording each and every occurrence of a target behavior within a given period. Do this for a prearranged amount of time. We also need to make sure we are choosing time period where the person is in the right context which we want to observe. Sometimes behaviour can be too frequent to even do this, e.g. foot tapping you couldn’t count this for an hour.

Question 15

interval recording

Answer 15

way to count or record behaviour
recording whether a behavior occurs during each of a series of short intervals within an observation period. Just tick if it does in the period of time under question.

Question 16

what does checking interobserver reliability allow us to do?

Answer 16

it means we can check that a behaviour has been defined correctly/ precisely enough that some instances of the behaviour cannot be missed

Question 17

two ways to plot behaviour rates

Answer 17

• simple frequency graphs: each data point indicates the number of times a behaviour occurred over a period of tim
• cumulative frequency graph: each data point indicates total number of times a behaviour occurred up to that time point

Question 18

what is single case experimental design?

Answer 18

SCED- a research design in which the behavior of an individual is compared under experimental and control conditions.

Question 19

why do we graph it rather than stats it?

Answer 19

we need practical significance not statistical

Question 20

types of SCED

Answer 20

A-B design
ABAB reversal design
multiple baseline design
alternating treatment design

Question 21

What is A-B design?

Answer 21

A- baseline then B- intervention
Not used very much as its hard to take account the confounding variables and no replication so we cant guarantee this is what caused the behaviour change

Question 22

ABAB reversal design

Answer 22

a single case design in which baseline and intervention conditions are repeated with the same person. Cant be used for really serious behavioural problems as you dont want the person to become dangerous again

Question 23

multiple baseline design

Answer 23

a single case design in which the effects of an intervention are recorded across situations, behaviors, or individuals.
This replicates the effects without returning to baseline. so a baseline in lots of different contexts then intervention in lots of different contexts

Question 24

Alternating treatment design

Answer 24

a single case design in which two of more interventions alternate systematically.

Question 25

wash out effect

Answer 25

happens with ABAB design- think when irreversible changes are made from the first intervention

Question 26

observational SCED

Answer 26

no intervention, a bit correlationy

Question 27

changing criterion design

Answer 27

an initial baseline phase is followed by implementation of a treatment program delivered in a series of phases. Each phase has its own criterion rate for the target behavior, and once responding becomes stable an incremental shift in the criterion occurs to implement another phase.

Question 28

how long should baselines and interventions be

Answer 28

as long as it takes to see stability

Question 29

what are 6 types of data

Answer 29

Active experience
passive experience
active behaviour
passive behaviour
active physiology
passive physiology

Question 30

difference between active and passive data

Answer 30

active data is self reported or where physioloogy is measured through sampling such as saliva assessed for cortisol
passive data is inferred through observation or no intense reporting (e.g. using a pedometer rather than an exercise diary). physiology is measured through temperature tracking or heart rate etc

Question 31

experience data

Answer 31

mood, pain, fatigue, cogntitions, perceptions and appraisals

Question 32

behaviour data

Answer 32

actions which are observable to others such as smoking

Question 33

physiology data

Answer 33

intrna workings of the body and brain such as temp or hormone levels

Question 34

primary reinforcer

Answer 34

reinforcers which are not dependent on their association with other reinforcers

Question 35

secondary reinforcer

Answer 35

reinforcers which are dependent on their association with other reinforcers.e.g. clicker training with treats, clicker is secondary reinforcer

Question 36

a reinforcer is only a reinforcer if it …

Answer 36

impacts behaviour change

Question 37

is a reinforcer the same as a reward?

Answer 37

no, a reward is not necessarily reinforcing to everyone

Question 38

natural reinforcer/ contingencies

Answer 38

where a behaviour is rewarding in itself for the impact it has on the body, e.g. running gives you adrenaline which is therefore reinforcing

Question 39

4 problems with reinforcement

Answer 39

-bootleg reinforcement (e.g. reinforcment comes from someone other than you, this undermines the intervention)
-reliance on reinforcement (e.g. wont do it without, rarely a problem)
- behavioural contrast (e.g. reinforcing in one context doesn’t always work in all contexts)
- inappropriate use (e.g. delivery drivers getting paid per delivery which teaches them to drive unsafely)

Question 40

example of bootleg reinforcement

Answer 40

you reinforce a child to put their hand up more but every time you do the class laughs the class is reinforcing the had down behaviour

Question 41

partial reinforcement effect

Answer 41

problem with extinction- ensuring all reinforcers are withheld every time otherwise it can maintain the behaviour at high rates, making it harder to eliminate. there will be increased resistance to extinction following intermittent reinforcement

Question 42

problems with extinction

Answer 42

• uncontrolled reinforcement
• it can be slow, bad if behaviour is dangerous
• extinction burst, sudden increase in behaviour, gets worse before it gets better
• spontaneous recovery, target behaviour suddenly reappears

Question 43

example of uncontrolled reinforcement (problem with extinction)

Answer 43

reinforcement is natural so how can you get rid of a natural reinforcer like adrenaline

Question 44

differential reinforcment

Answer 44

Any procedure that combines reinforcement and extinction to change the frequency of a target behavior.

Question 45

example of differential reinforcment

Answer 45

Rekers and Lovaas 1974- reduce ‘inappropriate’ gender role behaviour in a 5 year old. Craig was engaging in a lot of female mannerisms and the parents wanted him to stop as he was being bullied. Researchers used extinction to reduce the feminine behaviour and reinforcement to increase his masculine behaviour. Mother had an ear piece connected to he researchers, when he was feminine the mother ignored him and when he was masculine she paid him attention. The behaviour did seem to change.

Question 46

what is punishment defined by?

Answer 46

its ability to reduce the behaviour

Question 47

what is the hierarchy of punishers in ABA?

Answer 47

• reprimanding
• response cost
• time out
• overcorrection
• physical punishment

Question 48

example and issue of reprimanding

Answer 48

-corrective feedback
- expressions of disapproval
ISSUE- could serve as attention so wont work if they want attention

Question 49

example of response cost

Answer 49

if a person does something they they cannot have something, it costs them

Question 50

over correction example

Answer 50

if they do something they have to do it over and over as punishment- if they pull out flowers then they have to replant the flowers over and over

Question 51

physical punishment example in ABA

Answer 51

‘brief non injurious contact with the skin contingent on target behaviour’ no permanent damage or long lasting pain
Dorsey 1980- fine mist applied to the face of person with intellectual disabilities on self injurious behaviour (hand biting, skin tearing, banging head, scratching etc). The mist worked to reduce the amount of damage that severely disabled people were inflicting on themself. They then did a second experiment using mist and the word no, no then became enough to stop them from doing the behaviour

Question 52

problems with punishment

Answer 52

• Negative side effects
  Person using the punishment might become conditioned to be hated. The prson might fear you as they do the punishment. If you then back of when they are attacking then they will attack every time
• Inappropriate use
  Use stronger than needed
  Not doing it immediately doing the punishment too late after the behaviour
  o Judge rottenberg centre in USA? Using electric shocks to control developmental disability student behaviours

Question 53

when is a behaviour said to be under stimulus control?

Answer 53

when there is an increased probability that the behavior will occur in the presence of a specific antecedent stimulus

Question 54

example of behaviour under stimulus control?

Answer 54

hearing the door bell increases the liklihood you will open the door

Question 55

what is a discriminative stimulus and example of it

Answer 55

It is the stimulus which signals the availability of reinforcers.
e.g. Sound of the phone ringing is a discriminative stimulus, the behaviour of picking up the phone and putting it to your ear is reinforced when there is a phone ring.

Question 56

what is the stimulus delta

Answer 56

Stimulus, in the presence of which a behaviour is not reinforced. When present if the behaviour was to occur will not reinforce you.
the behaviour of picking up the phone and putting it to your ear is not reinforced when there is no phone ring.

Question 57

example of where traffic lights can be both stimulus delta and discriminative stimulus

Answer 57

behaviour = stopping the car
red light = discriminative stimulus
green light= stimulus delta

Question 58

famous application of stimulus control

Answer 58

procedure to train soldiers in morse code in WW2 rather than just memorising.

Question 59

famous application of stimulus control

Answer 59

procedure to train soldiers in morse code in WW2 rather than just memorising. Every recruit hears the morse code and then has to write down on the sheet what the signal was. Immediately after their response the voice on the headphones gave them the correct response, recruit got an opportunity to compare their answer to the correct answer. If it was incorrect they had to write down the correct one. This was effective and then used throughout the war. The correct was a reinforcer effecting how quickly we learn therefore.

Question 60

how do we do discrimination training

Answer 60

one behaviour, two antecedent stimulus conditions (a discriminative stimulus and stimulus delta)

Question 61

what is a prompt

Answer 61

Prompts are supplementary stimuli given before or during the performance of a behaviour, that increases the likelihood that the person will engage in the correct behaviour at the correct time.
They offer a means to transfer stimulus control..
May also serve as a reminder
Ensures the behaviour occurs then we meet it with reinforcement

Question 62

examples of response prompts

Answer 62

• Verbal prompt
• Modelling
• Physical guidance- e.g. helping your hand when you play the violin, gives you access to reinforcement !
• Gestural prompt
  response prompts ADD something

Question 63

stimulus prompts

Answer 63

prompts where the stimulus itself is modified in some way, nothing is in addition it is just modified to make it more likely. A stimulus prompt might involve a change in the SD or the S-delta (SΔ) that makes the SD more salient (more noticeable or conspicuous) and the SΔ less salient so that the person is more likely to respond to the SD

Question 64

examples of stimulus prompts

Answer 64

• Movement prompts
• Position prompts (e.g. putting the thing you want them to point at closer to them)
• Redundancy prompts

Question 65

prompt fading

Answer 65

Fading is one way to transfer stimulus control from the prompts to the SD. So the prompt is no longer necessary.
Ensures no over reliance on this prompt.
Transfers stimulus control back from the prompt to eh SD, we want the behaviour to be under the control of the SD.

Question 66

different ways to do prompt fading and examples

Answer 66

• most to least (e.g. decreasing assistance)
• least to most (e.g. only provide help when absolutely needed then add more when needed)
• time delay (e.g. Constant prompt delay- e.g. where prompt is always given 3 seconds after SD or Progressive prompt delay- increase delay between SD and prompt as you go along

Question 67

components of complexity of human behaviour

Answer 67

• Ambiguous antecedents
• people behave differently to the same discriminative stimulus depending on context
• there are sequencing behaviours (series of behaviors which had to occur in order for the behaviour to occur)
• Variability in responding

Question 68

what is the purpose of shaping

Answer 68

Shaping is used to develop a behaviour that a person does not currently exhibit.

Question 69

successive approximations (shaping)

Answer 69

we have a target goal and we start somewhere and make incremental improvements, each improvement we make is called a successive approximation, toward a target/ terminal behavior until the person exhibits the target behavior

Question 70

what are four dimensions of behaviour which we can shape

Answer 70

topography (form of behaviour)
frequency
latency (time between onset of antecedent stimulus and the occurrence of the behaviour)
duration

Question 71

example of shaping and successive approxinmations

Answer 71

Ghaemmaghami et al 2018- use shaping to help children engage in communication responses instead of aggression/ challenging behaviour. Arrow represents successive approximations. Shapes the topography of the response.
my way pls –> may i have my way pls –> excuse me may i have my way

Question 72

what do we do if someone can immediately do the final steps of the shaping behaviour plan?

Answer 72

we don’t make them undergo the whole shaping plan unless they make lots of errors

Question 73

what are behaviour chains

Answer 73

We often engage in complex behaviour: multiple component responses. Each step leads to the next step, each step in the chain tells us that the next step is time to happen. each step serves as a discriminative stimulus for the next step. E.g. brushing your teeth

Question 74

forward chaining

Answer 74

• The first step in the chain is the first training step, and then the second, third, and so on, until the entire chain has been taught. It is done chronologically, trained until mastery.
• Prompting starts at the first step and until each step is performed independently the rest of the chain is fully prompted.

Question 75

backwards chaining

Answer 75

• The last step in the chain is the first training step, and then the second last, third last, and so on, until the entire chain has been taught. Reverse chronokogically order, do last step first.
• Prompting starts at the last step and until each step is performed independently the rest of the chain is fully prompted.

Question 76

total task training chaining

Answer 76

o Each step taught independently we wont wait until mastery of any step we make sure each step is trained throughout.

Question 77

why might we do backward rather than forward chaining

Answer 77

o Terminal reinforcer is accessed immediately when we do backward which may be good for people with intellectual disability or neurodevelopmental disorders. Must consider whether its good for the person to experience delayed reinforcement.

Question 78

why would we do forward rather than backward chaining

Answer 78

when it makes logical sense for the person to be taught in chronological order and they will be fine with delayed reinforcement

Question 79

generalisation

Answer 79

behaviour happening under non training conditions, trained behaviour generalises to different contexts

Question 80

what is the difference between response and stimulus generalisation

Answer 80

stimulus generalisation- target behaviour is emitted in the presence of similar stimuli
response generalisation- untrained responses that are functionally equivalent such as hey, hi, hello

Question 81

response maintenance

Answer 81

when the learner continues to perform the target behaviour after the intervention is terminated

Question 82

what are stoke and baer’s guidelines for generalisation

Answer 82

1. train and hope
2. sequential modification
3. introduce to natural maintaining contingencies (must reflect natural environment)
4. train sufficient exemplars (lots of conditions)
5. train loosely
6. use indiscriminable contingencies
7. program common stimuli

Question 83

why do we need to reduce behaviour

Answer 83

• affects others/environment
• safety of someone is threatened
• the behaviour is hindering the persons ability to acquire new skills like going to school
• leads to restrictive living arrangements

Question 84

behaviours can be seen as forms of communication with a function such as what?

Answer 84

get or avoid something

Question 85

what are some examples of social positive reinforcement?

Answer 85

• gain attention
• gain access to a situation/ person/ group

Question 86

give an example of social negative reinforcement

Answer 86

escaping a certain situation, if being next to someone who bullies you then you might misbehave so you can leave the room and them

Question 87

what does the ‘automatic’ in negative and positive reinforcement mean? give example of both

Answer 87

automatic = the sensation from doing the action is reinforcing enough
- automatic positive reinforcement e.g. running
- automatic negative reinforcement e.g. itching

Question 88

antecedent

Answer 88

what happened prior to the behaviour of concern

Question 89

difference between proactive strategies and teaching alternative behaviours

Answer 89

• proactive strategies = implemented before the behaviour happens, to stop the behaviour from happening, maybe the function is not appropriate
• teaching alternative behaviours are implemented just as the behaviour starts to occur. another way to get what they want tha is functionally equivalent

Question 90

give an example of teaching alternative behaviour

Answer 90

training individual with disability to press a button for attention rather than self harming. Also simply gave him more attention

Question 91

trauma informed applications

Answer 91

understanding how past experiences may influence an individual’s liklihood of wanting the reward, e.g. fear of the adults letting them down which is more upsetting than not getting the reward
offering enhanced choices so they have more control

Question 92

3 reasons why we do self management

Answer 92

• Engage in a controlling behaviour to influence a future behaviour
• Establish a behaviour that does not have immediate positive consequences, but has a future desirable outcome - Can be applied for behavioural deficits or excesses
  like running regularly, smoking

Question 93

steps to self management

Answer 93

define target behaviour precisely
functional assessment (immediate contingencies which block delayed positive outcome like the reinforcers from tv)
set goals
self monitor
antecedent and consequence control
evaluate and reevaluate

Question 94

example of antecedent control and consequence control

Answer 94

antecedent control- eating a snack midday so you arent too hungry to go for a run before dinner
consequence control- join a running group

Question 95

examples of whether benefit outweighs the costs of changing a behaviour

Answer 95

• teaching autistic children masking is socially draining for them and may result in poorer mental health, not worth the benefit
• making a child go home because they wear the wrong socks

Question 96

when thinking about trying to reduce a negative behaviour we must consider…

Answer 96

WHY that person is doing the undesirable behaviour, the child wearing the wrong socks may need financial help so the punishment of going home will not solve this.

Question 97

examples of different MOs for drinking and how these can lead to different drinking behaviours

Answer 97

motivating operations for drinking
- nervousness –> alcohol
- thirst –> water

Question 98

how can we change the SD to change behaviour despite the MO?

Answer 98

if we get rid of the avalibility of something like getting rid of all the sugar in the house then even though the MO is craving sugar the consequence of this MO (having cake) is not available

Question 99

difference between behavioural modification and behaviour analysis

Answer 99

behavioural modification is when we manipulate consequences alone, it is easier
behavioural analysis takes longer and is a values driven practice, understand why a person does what they do

Question 100

4 types of differential reinforcement

Answer 100

Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible behavior (DRI)
Differential Reinforcement of Alternative behavior (DRA)
Differential Reinforcement of Other behavior (DRO)
Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates (DRL)

Question 101

differential reinforcement of incompatible behaviour

Answer 101

DRI - this procedures entails only reinforcing behaviors that are incompatible with the problem behavior while withholding reinforcement for the problem behavior. In other words, only behaviors that cannot occur simultaneously with the problem behavior are reinforced.
e.g. Kevin engages in out of seat behavior so his teacher decides to implement a DRI procedure. She decides to reinforce a behavior that is incompatible with out of seat behavior. Sitting in his seat is chosen as the incompatible behavior because it cannot occur at the same time as out of seat behavior. Kevin only receives reinforcement (ex. token) for sitting in his seat while reinforcement is withheld when Kevin is out of his seat.

Question 102

differential reinforcement of alternative behaviour

Answer 102

DRA - this procedure entails reinforcing a behavior that serves as a viable alternative for the problem behavior, but is not necessarily incompatible with the problem behavior.
Example: Sarah engages in shouting out behavior after her teacher poses a question to the class. Her teacher decides to use a DRA procedure in which Sarah is only reinforced (ex. called on) for raising her hand to answer a question. This behavior is an alternative to shouting out, but is not incompatible as both the problem behavior and the alternative can occur at the same time. However, raising her hand is a more socially acceptable alternative.

Question 103

differential reinforcement of other behaviour

Answer 103

DRO - this procedure entails delivering reinforcement whenever the problem behavior does not occur during a predetermined amount of time.
Example: Julie pulls strands of hair out of her head when she is completing independent work. Her teacher decides to use DRO in order to reinforce the absence of pulling her hair. Using this procedure, the teacher sets a timer for three minutes on Julie’s desk. If Julie does not pull her hair for the entire three minutes then she is reinforced. If Julie does pull her hair, she is not reinforced and the timer is reset.

Question 104

differential reinforcement of low rates

Answer 104

DRL - this procedure is used to reduce the frequency of a behavior but not eliminate it from the learners repertoire entirely. This is typically reserved for behaviors that are socially acceptable but may occur too often. Using this procedure, reinforcement is delivered if a behavior occurs below a predetermined criteria
Example: James uses socially appropriate behavior to greet peers but does so up to ten times in one class period. His teacher decides to use DRL to lower the rate of his behavior but she does not want to eliminate it completely. She decides to deliver reinforcement (ex. computer time) to James if he greets peers five or fewer times during the class period. If he greets peers more than five times, he does not receive reinforcement.

Question 105

3 side effects of punishment

Answer 105

• producing undesirable emotional reactions
• punisher becomes associated with punishment
• imitiation

Question 106

discrete trial training

Answer 106

Discrete Trial Training (DTT) is an intervention strategy characterized by its highly structured, one-on-one teaching environment in which tasks are broken down and taught in small increments. DTT is typically conducted with a teacher and learner seated adjacent to one another at a table. There are four parts of DTT that are presented in the following order:
Discriminative Stimulus
Child Response
Consequence
Intertrial Interval
can also involve prompts
e.g. touch something you can eat, good youre touching something that you can eat, now show me eating, what are you doing? eating well done