key terminology

Question 1

action code

Answer 1

something that happens in the narrative that tells the audience that some action will follow, for example in a scene from a soap opera, a couple are intimate in a bedroom and the camera shows the audience the husband’s car pulling up at the front of the house.

Question 2

active audience

Answer 2

audiences actively engage in selecting media products to consume and interpreting their meanings.

Question 3

anchorage

Answer 3

the words that accompany an image (still or moving) contribute to the meaning associated with that image. if the caption or voice-over is changed then so may the way in which the audience interprets the image. an image with an anchor is a closed text; the audience are given a preferred reading. a text without an anchor is an open text as the audience can interpret it as they wish. the same image of a school in a local newspaper could include a negative or a positive headline, which may change the way in which the same image is viewed by the reader.

Question 4

appeal

Answer 4

the way in which products attract and interest an audience, e.g. through the use of stars, familiar genre conventions and more.

Question 5

arc of transformation

Answer 5

the emotional changes a character goes through in the process of the narrative. the events in the story mean that they will ‘transform’ by the end of the story.

Question 6

aspirational

Answer 6

in terms of a media text, one that encourages the audience to want more money, up-market consumer items and a higher social position.

Question 7

attract

Answer 7

how media producers create appeal to audiences to encourage them to consume the product.

Question 8

audience categorisation

Answer 8

how media producers group audiences (e.g. by age, gender, ethnicity) to target their products.

Question 9

audience consumption

Answer 9

the way in which audiences engage with media products (e.g. viewing a TV programme, playing a video game, reading a blog or magazine). methods of consumption have changed
significantly due to the development of digital technologies.

Question 10

audience interpretation

Answer 10

the way in which audiences ‘read’ the meanings in, and make sense of, media products.

Question 11

audience positioning

Answer 11

the way in which media products place audiences (literally or metaphorically) in relation to a particular point of view. for example, audiences may be positioned with a particular character or positioned to adopt a specific ideological perspective.

Question 12

audience response

Answer 12

how audiences react to media products e.g. by accepting the intended meanings (preferred reading).

Question 13

audience segmentation

Answer 13

where a target audience is divided up due to the diversity and range of programmes and channels. this makes it difficult for one programme to attract a large target audience.

Question 14

audio

Answer 14

how sound is used to communicate meaning - voice-over, dialogue, music, SFX and more.

Question 15

avatar

Answer 15

a player’s representation of themselves within a game.

Question 16

back story

Answer 16

part of a narrative which may be the experiences of a characteror the circumstances of an event that occur before the action or narrative of a media text. it is a device that gives the audiencemore information and makes the main story more credible.

Question 17

binary opposites

Answer 17

where texts incorporate examples of opposite values; for example, good versus evil, villain versus hero. these can be apparent in the characters, narrative or themes.

Question 18

brand identity

Answer 18

the association the audience make with the brand, for example, chanel or nike, built up over time and reinforced by the advertising campaigns and their placement.

Question 19

broadsheet

Answer 19

a larger newspaper that publishes more serious news, for example, the daily telegraph, has maintained its broadsheet format.

Question 20

camera angles

Answer 20

the angle of the camera in relation to the subject. for example, a high angle shot (shot of a character from above) may make
them appear more vulnerable.

Question 21

camera shots

Answer 21

the type of shot and framing in relation to the subject, for example, close-up shots are often used to express emotion.

Question 22

caption

Answer 22

words that accompany an image that help to explain it’s meaning.

Question 23

channel identity

Answer 23

that which makes the channel recognisable to audiences and different from any other channel. presenters, stars, programme
genres and specific programmes all contribute to a channel’s identity.

Question 24

circulation

Answer 24

the dissemination of media products to audiences/users - the method will depend on the media form e.g. circulation of print magazines, broadcast of television programmes and more.

Question 25

connotation

Answer 25

the suggested meanings attached to a sign, e.g., the red car in the advert suggests speed and power.

Question 26

conventions

Answer 26

what the audience expects to see in a particular media text, for example the conventions of science fiction films may include: aliens, scientists, other worlds, gadgets,
representations of good and evil and more. useful headings to discuss conventions are:
characters, setting, iconography, narrative, technical codes and representation.

Question 27

convergence

Answer 27

the coming together of previously separate media industries and/or platforms; often the result of advances in technology
whereby one device or platform contains a range of different features. the mobile phone, for example, allows the user to download and listen to music, view videos, tweet artists and more. all this can be done through one portable device.

Question 28

cover lines

Answer 28

these suggest the content to the reader and often contain teasers and rhetorical questions. these relate to the genre of the magazine.

Question 29

cross-platform marketing

Answer 29

in media terms, a text that is distributed and exhibited across a range of media formats or platforms. this may include film, television, print, radio and the internet.

Question 30

cultural capital

Answer 30

the media tastes and preferences of an audience, traditionally linked to social class/background.

Question 31

demographic category

Answer 31

a group in which consumers are placed according to their age, sex, income, profession, etc. the categories range from A to E where categories A and B are the wealthiest and most influential members of society.

Question 32

denotation

Answer 32

the literal meaning of a sign, e.g. the car in the advert is red.

Question 33

diegetic sound

Answer 33

sound that comes from the fictional world, for example, the sound of a gun firing, the cereal being poured into the bowl in an advert and more.

Question 34

discourse

Answer 34

the topics, language and meanings or values behind them within a media text. the discourse of lifestyle magazines, for example, tends to revolve around body image and narcissism.

Question 35

distribution

Answer 35

the methods by which media products are delivered to audiences, including the marketing campaign. these methods will depend upon the product (for example, distribution companies in the film industry organise the release of the films, as well as their promotion).

Question 36

diversification

Answer 36

where media organisations who have specialised in producing media products in one form move into producing content across
a range of forms.

Question 37

editing

Answer 37

the way in which the shots move from one to the other (transitions), e.g. fade, cut, and more. fast cutting may increase the pace and therefore the tension of the text, for example.

Question 38

encoding and decoding

Answer 38

media producers encode messages and meanings in products that are decoded, or interpreted, by audiences.

Question 39

enigma code

Answer 39

a narrative device which increases tension and audience interest by only releasing bits of information, for example, teasers in a film trailer or narrative strands that are set up at the
beginning of a drama/film that make the audience ask questions; part of a restricted narrative.

Question 40

equilibrium

Answer 40

in relation to narrative, a state of balance or stability (in todorov’s theory the equilibrium is disrupted and ultimately restored).

Question 41

ethnocentric

Answer 41

a belief in the superiority of one’s own ethnic group or culture. for example, a newspaper will be more concerned to cover stories that are closely related to the reader and their concerns.
tabloid and local papers only tend to cover international news stories if they can relate them specifically to their readers.

Question 42

ethos

Answer 42

the beliefs, values and customs of, for example, media organisations. in television, for example, what the channel believes in and what it sees as its role. the ethos is usually set
out in the channel’s charter.

Question 43

fan

Answer 43

an enthusiast or aficionado of a particular media form or product.

Question 44

feature

Answer 44

in magazine terms, the main, or one of the main, stories in an edition. features are generally located in the middle of the
magazine, and cover more than one or two pages.

Question 45

flexi narrative

Answer 45

a more complex narrative structure with layers of interweaving storylines. this challenges the audience and keeps them watching.

Question 46

four c’s

Answer 46

this stands for CROSS CULTURAL CONSUMER CHARACTERISTICS and was a way of categorising consumers into groups through their motivational needs. the main groups were mainstreamers, aspirers, explorers, succeeders and reformers.

Question 47

franchise

Answer 47

an entire series of, for example, a film including the original film and all those that follow.

Question 48

gate keepers

Answer 48

the people responsible for deciding the most appropriate stories to appear in newspapers. they may be the owner, editor or senior journalists. they will only let the stories most appropriate for the ideology of the paper ‘through the gate’.

Question 49

genre

Answer 49

media texts can often be grouped into genres that all share similar conventions. science fiction is a genre, as are teenage magazines and more.

Question 50

global

Answer 50

worldwide - e.g. a media product with global reach is a product that is distributed around the world.

Question 51

hegemony

Answer 51

this derives from the theory of cultural hegemony by antonio gramsci. hegemony is the dominance of one group over another, often supported by legitimating norms and ideas. for
example, the dominant social position in society is taken by men and the subordinate one by women.

Question 52

horizontal integration

Answer 52

where a media conglomerate is made up of different companies that produce and sell similar products, often as a result of mergers. for example a company with interests in film, TV, magazines newspaper.

Question 53

house style

Answer 53

the aspects that make a magazine recognisable to its readers every issue. the house style is established through the choice of colour, the layout and design, the font style, the content and the general ‘look’ of the publication.

Question 54

hybrid genre

Answer 54

media texts that incorporate elements of more than one genre and are therefore more difficult to classify are genre hybrids. dr who, for example, is a science fiction/fantasy television drama.

Question 55

hypodermic needle model

Answer 55

generally acknowledged to be an out of date media effects theory which suggests that an audience will have a mass response to a media text. the idea is that the media product injects an idea into the mind of an audience who are assumed to be passive and as a result will all respond in the same way.

Question 56

iconography

Answer 56

the props, costumes, objects and backgrounds associated with a particular genre; for example, in a police series you would expect to see, uniforms, blue flashing lights, scene of crime
tape and police radios.

Question 57

ideology

Answer 57

a set of messages, values and beliefs that may be encoded into media products.

Question 58

independent film

Answer 58

a film made outside of the financial and artistic control of a large mainstream film company. a truly independent film will be privately conceived and funded. however, few films made are really ‘independent’. this more commonly refers to a film that is made by a smaller film company on a low budget.

Question 59

independent record label

Answer 59

a record label that operates without the funding of, and that is not necessarily linked to, a major record label.

Question 60

intellectual property

Answer 60

a legal concept which refers to creations of the mind for which the owner’s rights are recognized. these rights cover such intangible assets as music, literary and artistic works;
discoveries and inventions; and words, phrases, symbols, and designs.

Question 61

interactive audience

Answer 61

the ways in which audiences can become actively involved with a product, for example by posting a response to a blog or live tweeting during a television programme.

Question 62

intertextual

Answer 62

where one media text makes reference to aspects of another text within it. for example, referencing a scene from a film in a television advertisement. audiences enjoy recognising
intertextual references.

Question 63

intertextuality

Answer 63

where one media product intertextually references another.

Question 64

layout and design

Answer 64

the way in which a page has been designed to attract the target audience. this includes the font styles used, the positioning of text and images and the use of colour.

Question 65

linear narrative

Answer 65

where the narrative unfolds in chronological order from beginning to end.

Question 66

ludology

Answer 66

the study of games and those who play them, relevant to video games.

Question 67

masculinity

Answer 67

the perceived characteristics generally considered to define what it is to be a man. these can change according to sociological and cultural variations.

Question 68

mass audience

Answer 68

the traditional idea of the audience as one large, homogenous group.

Question 69

media conglomerate

Answer 69

a company that owns other companies across a range of media platforms. this increases their domination of the market and their ability to distribute and exhibit their product.

Question 70

media forms

Answer 70

types of media products, for example television, newspapers, advertising.

Question 71

media language

Answer 71

the specific elements of a media product that communicate meanings to audiences, e.g. visual codes, audio codes, technical codes, language.

Question 72

media platform

Answer 72

the range of different ways of communicating with an audience, for example newspapers, the internet, and television.

Question 73

mediation

Answer 73

the way in which a media text is constructed in order to represent a version of reality; constructed through selection,
organization and focus.

Question 74

mise-en-scene

Answer 74

in analysis of moving image products, how the combination of images in the frame creates meaning; how individual shots in a film or photograph have been composed.

Question 75

misrepresentation

Answer 75

certain social groups (usually minority groups) may be represented in a way that is inappropriate and not based on reality.

Question 76

mmorpg

Answer 76

massively multi-player online role-playing game.

Question 77

mode of address

Answer 77

the way in which a media text ‘speaks to’ its target audience. for example, teenage magazines have a chatty informal mode
of address; the news has a more formal mode of address.

Question 78

narrative

Answer 78

the ‘story’ that is told by the media text. all media texts, not just fictional texts, have a narrative. for example, magazines have
a clear beginning, middle and end. most narratives are linear and follow a specific structure (todorov’s theories).

Question 79

news agenda

Answer 79

the list of stories that may appear in a particular paper. the items on the news agenda will reflect the style and ethos of the paper.

Question 80

niche audience

Answer 80

a relatively small audience with specialised interests, tastes, and backgrounds.

Question 81

non-diegetic sound

Answer 81

sound that comes from outside the fictional world, for example, a voiceover, romantic mood music and more.

Question 82

non-linear narrative

Answer 82

here the narrative manipulates time and space. It may begin in the middle and then include flashbacks and other narrative devices.

Question 83

open world

Answer 83

in an open world computer game the player can move freely though the virtual world and is not restricted by levels and other barriers to free roaming.

Question 84

opinion leaders

Answer 84

people in society who may affect the way in which others interpret a particular media text. with regard to advertising, this may be a celebrity or other endorser recommending a product.

Question 85

passive audience

Answer 85

the idea (now widely regarded as outdated) that audiences do not actively engage with media products, but passively consume and accept the messages that producers communicate.

Question 86

patriarchal culture

Answer 86

a society or culture that is male dominated

Question 87

pick and mix theory

Answer 87

suggested by british sociologist and media theorist, david gauntlett. he asserted the autonomy of the audience and challenged the notion that audiences are immediately affected
by what they read. he maintains that audiences are more sophisticated than this and will select aspects of the media texts that best suit their needs and ignore the rest.

Question 88

plurality

Answer 88

in a media context, this refers to a range of content to suit many people.

Question 89

political bias

Answer 89

where a newspaper may show support for a political party through its choice of stories, style of coverage, cartoons and more. it may be subtle and implicit or explicit as in the case of the tabloid newspapers on election day.

Question 90

privleged spectator position

Answer 90

where the camera places the audience in a superior position within the narrative. the audience can then anticipate what will
follow.

Question 91

production

Answer 91

the process by which media products are constructed.

Question 92

products

Answer 92

media texts, including television programmes, magazines, video games, newspapers and more. as well as online, social and
participatory platforms.

Question 93

public service broadcaster

Answer 93

a radio and television broadcaster that is financed by public money (e.g. the licence fee in the UK) and is seen to offer a public service by catering for a range of audiences and providing information, as well as entertainment.

Question 94

realism

Answer 94

a style of presentation that claims to portray ‘real life’ accurately and authentically.

Question 95

regulator

Answer 95

a person or body that supervises a particular industry.

Question 96

repertoire of elements

Answer 96

key features that distinguish one genre from another.

Question 97

representation

Answer 97

the way in which key groups or aspects of society are presented by the media, e.g. gender, race, age, the family and more. literally, a re-representation or constructed version of that
which is shown.

Question 98

selection and combination

Answer 98

media producers actively choose elements of media language and place them alongside others to create specific representations or versions of reality.

Question 99

sexual objectification

Answer 99

the practice of regarding a person as an object to be viewed only in terms of their sexual appeal and with no consideration of
any other aspect of their character or personality.

Question 100

sign/code

Answer 100

something which communicates meaning, e.g., colours, sounds. the meaning of the sign changes according to the context, e.g., the colour red can mean passion, love, danger or
speed depending on how and where it is used.

Question 101

simulcast

Answer 101

the streaming of live radio programmes from the website at the same time as they are broadcast on the radio.

Question 102

specialised audience

Answer 102

a non-mass, or niche, audience that may be defined by a particular social group (for example young, aspirational females) or by a specific interest (for example skydiving).

Question 103

splash

Answer 103

the story that is given the most prominence on the front page of a newspaper.

Question 104

stereotype

Answer 104

an exaggerated representation of someone or something. it is also where a certain group are associated with a certain set of characteristics, for example all scotsmen are mean, blondes
are dumb and more. stereotypes can be quick ways of communicating information in adverts and dramas, e.g. the rebellious teenager in a soap opera, as they are easily recognisable to audiences.

Question 105

stripped

Answer 105

a technique used in radio and television whereby a certain programme is broadcast at the same time every day. in radio this attracts an audience who associate a particular programme with their daily routine, for example driving home from work.

Question 106

sub-genre

Answer 106

where a genre is sub-divided into smaller categories each of which has their own set of conventions. for example, the television drama genre can be sub-divided into teen drama, hospital drama, costume drama and more.

Question 107

subject-specific lexis

Answer 107

the specific language and vocabulary used to engage the audience. subject-specific lexis used on the front cover of the magazine will make the reader feel part of the group who belong to the world of that magazine. for example, terminology used on the front covers of gaming magazines.

Question 108

synergy

Answer 108

the combination of elements to maximise profits within a media organisation or product. for example, where a film soundtrack sells the film and the film sells the soundtrack.

Question 109

tabloid

Answer 109

refers to the dimensions of a newspaper; a tabloid is smaller and more compact in size. however, there are further connotations attached to the term and it also tends to refer to a newspaper whose content focuses on lighter news, for example celebrity gossip, sport and television.

Question 110

target audience

Answer 110

the people at whom the media text is aimed.

Question 111

technical codes

Answer 111

these are the way in which the text has been produced to communicate meanings and are part of media language.

Question 112

textual poaching

Answer 112

the way in which audiences or fans may take particular texts and interpret or reinvent them in different ways e.g. by creating fan fiction.

Question 113

underrepresentation

Answer 113

certain social groups (usually minority groups) may be rarely represented or be completely absent from media products.

Question 114

uses and gratifications theory

Answer 114

suggests that active audiences seek out and use different media texts in order to satisfy a need and experience different pleasures.

Question 115

vertical integration

Answer 115

vertically integrated companies own all or most of the chain of production and distribution for the product. for example, a film company that also owns a chain of multiplex cinemas to exhibit the film and merchandise outlets.

Question 116

viewpoints

Answer 116

different perspectives in relation to values, attitudes, beliefs or ideologies.

Question 117

viral marketing

Answer 117

where the awareness of the product or the advertising campaign is spread through less conventional ways including social networks and the internet. viral marketing is so named
because many of the messages use ‘hosts’ to spread themselves rapidly, like a biological virus.

Question 118

visual codes

Answer 118

the visual aspects of the product that construct meaning and are part of media language, for example clothing, expression, and gesture.

Question 119

‘window on the world’

Answer 119

the idea that media texts, particularly those that present aspects of reality, for example, news programmes, are showing the audience the ‘real’ world as it happens.