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Pschology AS - memory > Key Studies > Flashcards

Key Studies Flashcards

Learn names of researchers and facts about research

1
Q

Who created the Multi store model of memory?

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

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2
Q

Who the ‘Digit Span Study’ into the capacity of STM?

A

Miller (1956)

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3
Q

Who opposed the ‘Digit Span theory’ (STM) with the number of words they could articulate in 1.5-2seconds?

A

Schweikert and Boruff (1986)

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4
Q

KEY STUDY - Capacity of STM: study of word length and effect on immediate memory span - who conducted it?

A

Baddeley et al 1975

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5
Q

KEY STUDY - Baddeley et al 1975 Capacity of STM: study of word length and effect on immediate memory span - Aim?

A

people could remember more short words than long words in a serial recall test – therefore proving pronunciation time determines capacity as opposed to the number of item to be recalled

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6
Q

KEY STUDY -Baddeley et al 1975 Capacity of STM: study of word length and effect on immediate memory span - Procedure?

A
  • reading speed of pps measured
  • pps presented with sets of words on a screen, 5 at a time
  • two separate sets: monosyllabic and polysyllabic words
  • pps were asked to write down the 5 words in serial order, immediately after presentation
  • this was done several times with several sets of words
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7
Q

KEY STUDY - Baddeley et al 1975 Capacity of STM: study of word length and effect on immediate memory span - Findings?

A
  • pps recalled considerably more short than long words
  • able to recall as many words as they could articulate in about 2 seconds
  • strong positive correlation between reading speed and memory span
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8
Q

KEY STUDY - Baddeley et al 1975 Capacity of STM: study of word length and effect on immediate memory span - Conclusion?

A

immediate memory span represents the number of items of whatever length that can be articulated in approximately 2 seconds

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9
Q

KEY STUDY - Baddeley et al 1975 Capacity of STM: study of word length and effect on immediate memory span - Evaluation?

A

– It might be short words are easier to recall because they are familiar

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10
Q

KEY STUDY - Duration of STM - Who?

A

Peterson and Peterson (1959)

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11
Q

KEY STUDY - Duration of STM - Aim?

Peterson and Peterson (1959)

A

to test how long STM lasts when rehearsal is prevented

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12
Q

KEY STUDY - Duration of STM - Procedure?

Peterson and Peterson (1959)

A
  • pps briefly shown a consonant trigram
  • pps asked to count backwards from a specified number to prevent rehearsal
  • after intervals of 3,6,9,12, or 18 seconds pps were asked to recall the original trigram
  • the procedure was repeated several times using different trigrams
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13
Q

KEY STUDY - Duration of STM - Findings?

Peterson and Peterson (1959)

A
  • pps were able to recall about 80% of trigrams after a 3 second interval
  • graph shows negative correlation between percentage of correctly recalled trigrams and the recall interval in seconds
  • progressively fewer trigrams were recalled as the time intervals lengthened
  • After 18 seconds, fewer than 10% of trigrams were recalled correctly
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14
Q

KEY STUDY - Duration of STM - Conclusion?

Peterson and Peterson (1959)

A

The longer the time period, the less we can recall from our short term memory
- Therefore the maximum duration for STM must be between 18-30 seconds

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15
Q

KEY STUDY - Duration of STM - Evaluation?

Peterson and Peterson (1959)

A
  • Trigrams are artificial things to remember and may not accurately reflect memory
  • It’s possible that interference from the earlier trigrams (not merely decay) caused poor recall
  • Note: the experimental method used in this study allows us to see the (casual) effect of time passing (independent variable) against recall (dependant variable)
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16
Q

Who’s experiment was this?:
Sequence of 6 consonants projected in rapid succession onto a screen, they were either
1. acoustically similar (P,C,V,T,B,D)
2. acoustically dissimilar
- most common mistake: people replacing similar sounding letters, even though they were presented visually
o conclusion – items stored in STM are acoustically encoded
 other studies have shown otherwise when steps to prevent acoustic encoding are taken

A

Conrad’s 1964 Study on acoustic confusion

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17
Q

Describe Conrad’s 1964 Study on acoustic confusion…

A

Sequence of 6 consonants projected in rapid succession onto a screen, they were either
1. acoustically similar (P,C,V,T,B,D)
2. acoustically dissimilar
- most common mistake: people replacing similar sounding letters, even though they were presented visually
o conclusion – items stored in STM are acoustically encoded
 other studies have shown otherwise when steps to prevent acoustic encoding are taken

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18
Q

Who did the Key Study into Encoding in STM and when?

A

Baddeley (1966)

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19
Q

Encoding in STM - Baddeley (1966) - Aim?

A

To explore the effects of acoustic and semantic encoding in STM

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20
Q

Encoding in STM - Baddeley (1966) - Procedure?

A

pps were divided into 4 groups each given a category of words
1. acoustically similar words (man, mad, map)
2. acoustically dissimilar words (pen, day, few)
3. semantically similar words (great, big, large)
4. semantically dissimilar words (hot, old, late)
Immediately after hearing the five words, they were asked to recall them in the correct order (repeated 4 times)

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21
Q

Encoding in STM - Baddeley (1966) - Findings?

A

Acoustically similar words were much harder to recall in the correct order (55% recall) than dissimilar sounds (75% recall)

  • Similarity of meaning had only a very slight detrimental effect
  • The effects of sound similarity disappeared when he tested LTM
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22
Q

Encoding in STM - Baddeley (1966) - Conclusion?

A

These findings support those of Conrad: STM relies more on the sound of words than on their meaning, as shown by the difficulty participants had in recalling the correct order of words that sounded similar

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23
Q

Encoding in STM - Baddeley (1966) - Evaluation

A

Allows a casual link between type of encoding in STM and the accuracy of recall
However, the conclusion might not reflect the complexity of encoding – conflicting experiments: Brandimonte (1992)

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24
Q

KEY STUDY - Duration of LTM - who and when?

A

Bahrick (1975)

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25
Q

Duration of LTM - Bahrick (1975) - Aim?

A

To establish the existence of very long term memory (VLTM) and to see whether there was any difference between recognition and recall

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26
Q

Duration of LTM - Bahrick (1975) - Procedure?

A
  • Investigators tracked down the graduates from a particular high school in America over a 50 year period
  • 392 graduates shown photos from their yearbook
  • Recognition group: for each photo, participants were given a group of names and asked to select the name that matched the person in the photo
  • Recall group: participants asked to name the people in the photos, without being given possibilities
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27
Q

Duration of LTM - Bahrick (1975) - Findings? (recognition and recall groups)

A 
• Recognition group
- 90% correct after 14years
- 80% correct after 25 years
- 75% correct after 34 years
- 60% correct after 47 years
• Recall group
- 60% accurate after 7 years
- 20% accurate after 47 years
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28
Q

Duration of LTM - Bahrick (1975) - Conclusions?

A

People can remember certain types of information for almost a lifetime
• VLTM appears better when measured by recognition tests than recal

29
Q

Duration of LTM - Bahrick (1975) - Evaluations?

A

Used meaningful stimulus

• Unclear whether drop off in accuracy is reflective of limitations of duration or memory deterioration

30
Q

Encoding of LTM study was done by who and when?

A

Baddeley (1966)

31
Q

Encoding studies for LTM and STM was who?

A

Baddeley (1966)

32
Q

Encoding of LTM study - Aim and Procedure?

A
  • Similar to his STM study – using acoustically similar and dissimilar an semantically similar and dissimilar words
  • After intervals of 20 minutes
33
Q

Encoding of LTM study - Conclusions?

A

LTM Primarily makes use of semantic coding – shown by the difficulties participants had in recalling the words with similar meanings
 Contrast with STM which we encode acoustically

34
Q

Who devised the Working Memory Model?

A

Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

35
Q

The two different researchers who conducted capacity research in STM and LTM?

A

STM - Baddeley

LTM - infinite capacity

36
Q

The two different researchers who conducted duration research in STM and LTM?

A

STM - Peterson and Peterson

LTM - Bahrick

37
Q

Who did the research to evaluate the working memory model? (2 choices)

A

Baddeley et al (1973)

Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

38
Q

Evaluate the working model of memory - Baddeley et al (1973)

A

• Participants had to follow a moving spot of light with a pointer
• At the same time they had to imagine a block capital F and also had to classify whether each angle included either the bottom or the top line of the block letter starting from the bottom left corner
Conclusion –
1. Participants found it difficult to do the tracking and imagery tasks simultaneously possibly because both tasks were competing for the scarce resource of the Visuo-spatial Scratchpad
2. However when he combined the ‘F’ task with a verbal task as the distracter task they were able to perform, as the distracter task made use of the Phonological Store as opposed to the Visuo-Spatial Scratchpad
- suggesting STM cannot be a unitary store

39
Q

Evaluate the working model of memory - Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

A
  • Asked participants to recite aloud a list of 6 digits while simultaneously checking sentences (a reasoning task)
  • They found that participants were able to do both tasks at the same time
  • They concluded from this that STM (working memory) consists of several components working independently
  • It is assumed that when two tasks are being conducted that require the use of separate components then the task can be performed successfully
40
Q

KEY STUDY - Working memory (STM) in chess - who and when?

A

Robbins et al (1996)

41
Q

KEY STUDY - Working memory (STM) in chess - aimed to study the role of the Central Executive in remembering chess positions by investigating the effect of generating random letter strings - procedure?

A
  1. 20 chess players asked to remember the positions of 16 chess pieces from a real game in 10 seconds
  2. Procedure repeated 20 times
  3. While memorising the positions the participants either:
    a. simultaneously engaged the Central Executive by generating random letter sequences, concentrating to avoid meaningful combinations
    b. simultaneously carried out an articulatory suppression task (“the, the, the” in time with a metronome)
    • They then had to arrange the pieces to their remembered formation
42
Q

Findings of the Working memory in Chess study - (Robbins et al 1996)

A

Articulatory suppression group = good recall

Letter generation = performed poorly

43
Q

Conclusion from the Working memory in Chess study - (Robbins et al 1996)

A
  • The impaired performance of those generating the letter sequences demonstrated that the Central Executive played a role in remembering chess positions
  • The performance of participants in the articulatory suppression condition indicated that the phonological loop was not involved in remembering the chess positions
44
Q

Evaluations of the Working memory in Chess study - (Robbins et al 1996)

A
  • This well-designed study enables us to conclude that the different tasks (articulatory suppression and letter sequence generation) did cause the difference in performance
  • Generating meaningless letter sequences has been claimed by many cognitive psychologists as a valid way of engaging the Central Executive, as it requires considerable attention
45
Q

Who did research into the effects of Anxiety on EWT? (2 options)

A

Yuille and Cutshall

Loftus (1979) – (Weapon of focus)

46
Q

Yuille and Cutshall’s research into Anxiety’s effects on EWT

A

• Interviewed 13 witnesses to a shooting in a shop
Findings
- Closer the witness; more accurate their EWT
- Those more distressed at the time were more accurate 5 years on
Conclusion - anxiety enhanced the accuracy of EWT

47
Q

Describe Loftus (1979) – Weapon of focus study -

A

Findings
1. Those who had witnessed the man holding the pen accurately identified the person 49% of the time
2. Those who witnessed the man holding the blood-stained paper knife were successful only 33% of the time
Conclusion
‘Weapon of focus’ phenomenon – concentrating on weapon distracts attention

48
Q

Who developed the Cognitive interview?

A

Fisher and Geiselman (1992)

49
Q

Who did the research into the strengths of the Cognitive interview? (2)

A

Geiselman et al (1985)

Fisher et al (1989)

50
Q

Geiselman et al (1985)’s research into the cognitive interview

A

Strength- compared cognitive interview with a standard police interview and an interview under hypnosis. They found cognitive interview most effective

51
Q

Fisher et al (1989)’s research into the cognitive interview

A

Strength - trained detectives in Miami to use the cognitive interview technique, and found a significant increase in the amount of information recall

52
Q

Researcher into the weaknesses of the cognitive interview

A

Kebbell and Milne (1998)

53
Q

Kebbell and Milne (1998)’s research into the weaknesses of the cognitive interview

A

surveyed UK police officers. They discovered that although the police found the cognitive interview useful, they were concerned about the amount of incorrect information that was recalled

54
Q

Who did the research into misleading information on EWT and when?

A

Loftus 1975

55
Q

Findings of Loftus’s research into misleading information on EWT - (% of yes from each group to ‘Did you see a barn?’ Group 2 had the misleading information)

A
  1. 2.7% = yes
  2. 17.3% = yes
    - Group 2 had receive the misleading information
56
Q

Procedure of Loftus’s research into Misleading information on EWT

A

• Showed 150 participants a car accident video
• She then split them into two groups:
1. Were asked questions consistent with the clip
‘What speed was the car going passed the STOP sign?’
2. Were asked inconsistent questions
‘How fast was it travelling when it passed the barn?’

57
Q

Who did the research into the effect of leading questions?

A

Loftus and Palmer 1974

58
Q

Procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) research into the effects of misleading information on EWT - ‘smashed and contacted’ study

A

Smashed and contacted’ verb change to manipulate information from EWT of a car crash
smashed group = 40mph
contacted group = 30mph
• They concluded that the change in verb lead to different interpretations of the speed of the cars

59
Q

Evaluate Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) research into the effects of misleading information on EWT - ‘smashed and contacted’ study

A

Study lacks Ecological validity as the use of video clips to assess the accuracy of EWT takes away the emotional effects of witnessing a real incident

60
Q

> Read out lists of words in categories to their subjects. > During testing, half of the subjects were told the category names and the other half were not
The subjects who were told the category names recalled more of the words
The subjects who were told the category names recalled more of the words
Who conducted this research and why?

A

Tulving and Pearlstone (1966)

Strategies for memory improvement - Organisation of material into categories

61
Q

Who did the research into: Strategies for memory improvement - Organisation of material into categories

A

Tulving and Pearlstone (1966)

62
Q

Describe Tulving and Pearlstone (1966)’s research into: Strategies for memory improvement - Organisation of material into categories

A

> Read out lists of words in categories to their subjects. > During testing, half of the subjects were told the category names and the other half were not
The subjects who were told the category names recalled more of the words
The subjects who were told the category names recalled more of the words

63
Q

Who had an appreciation for the peg word technique?

A
  • According to Bellezza (1996): peg word technique = more flexible and effective than the method of loci
64
Q

Research into ‘spacing your studies’ a memory improvement technique - who, when and what?

A

Donovan and Radosevich (1999) tested review of 63 studies – found that distributed practice produced superior learning and remembering compared to massed practice

65
Q

Who developed the idea of ‘conceptual hierarchies’?

Applies to memory improvement - organization

A

Bower et al (1969)

66
Q

Who concluded retroactive was not responsible for remembering random words – proved link to older lists they’d been asked to learn.
The more experiments, the less they remembered?

A

Underwood (1957)

67
Q

What did Underwood (1957) conclude about the effect of interference affects on memory improvement?

A

concluded retroactive was not responsible for remembering random words – proved link to older lists they’d been asked to learn.
The more experiments, the less they remembered

68
Q

Encoding specificity principle

Concept for memory improvement

What is it, who devised each of the two groups, and when?

A

• Learn better if information is recalled in an identical context

CASE STUDY – Context Dependant Retrieval:
Godden and Baddeley (1975)
Findings proved that those who remained in the location they were taught the information in, were able to retrieve it better

	State Dependant Retrieval Goodwin et al (1969) Mental state/internal environment – i.e. physiological state or mood 	They tested the information retention of drunken people

Pschology AS - memory (1 decks)

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