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1
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What procedures is used to isolate DNA fragments of different lengths?

A

Gel electrophoresis

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2
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Which form of microscope can image living cells?

A

Light microscope

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3
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Most commonly used microscopy stain and what it does

A

Haematoxylin and eosin

Haematoxylin - stains nuclei blue

Eosin - stains everything else pink

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4
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Which type of microscope can be used with fleorescent markers?

A

Confocal

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5
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What does a confocal miscroscope require?

A

Lasers of various output wavelengths

A scanning mechanism

Light detectors and amplifiers

Computer with substantial processing power

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6
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Pros of using fluorescent proteins

A

Bright

Non-toxic

Passed to further generations

Protein expression can be controlled

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7
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Which type of electron microscopy builds up a 3D image?

A

Scanning electron microscope

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8
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Which type of electron microscope gives very fine detail?

A

Transmission electron microscope

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9
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Cytoplasm

A

Semi-fluid matrix

Is the cytosol and the stuff in it

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10
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Bacteria and archaea are…

  • Prokaryotes
  • Eukaryotes
A

Prokaryotes

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11
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What are the ancient prokaryotes that are often adapted to living in extreme environments called?

A

Archaea

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12
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What makes the rough ER rough?

A

The ribosomes in the surface

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13
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What is the role of ribosomes?

A

Site of protein synthesis

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14
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Roles of the rough ER

A

Protein synsthesis

Protein modification (chemically)

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15
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Roles of golgi body

A

Receives proteins from the ER

Modifies these proteins

Packages and transports proteins in secretory vesicles to other destinations

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16
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Lysosomes

A

Hydrolytic enzymes

Formed by budding from the endomembrane system

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17
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What do lysosomes breakdown?

A

Proteins

Lipids

Nucleic acids

Carbs

Old/damaged organelle

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18
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What in our cells has its own DNA?

A

Mitochondria

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19
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Roles of the cytoskeleton

A

Supports shape of cell

Anchors organelles

Acts as tracks for motor proteins

Interacts with extracellular structures to anchor the cell

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20
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What are the 3 protein fibres in the cytoskeleton?

A

Intermediate filament

Microtubule

Actin filament

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21
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Is the cytoskeleton rigid?

A

No

The protein fibres spontaneously assemble and reassemble

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22
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What are the 4 overlapping stages of the origin of life?

A
  1. Nucleotides and amino acids produced prior to existence of cells
  2. Nucleotides and amino acids become polymerised to form DNA, RNA and proteins
  3. Polymers become enclosed in membranes
  4. Polymers with membranes acquired cellular properties
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23
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Protobiont

A

Aggregate of prebiotically produced molecules and macromolecules

Acquired a boundry that allows it to maintain an internal chemical environment distinct from its surroundings

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24
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What is the importance of having a boundry such as a lipid bilayer?

A

Allows the cells to control its internal environment

Stop its surroundings controlling it

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25
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What are the 3 key RNA functions?

A

Store information

Capacity for self-replication

Enzymatic function

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26
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Chemical selection

A

Chemical within a mixture has properties that make it become more abundant than other chemicals

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27
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Hypothesised 2 step scenario that led to RNA becoming early life genetic material

A
  1. RNA molecule mutates and gains enzymatic ability to attach nucleotides together and replicate faster
  2. Another mutation produces enzymatic function to synthesise nucleotides and make it self-reliant
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28
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Advantages of DNA over RNA

A

Less likely to suffer mutations

Lets RNA get on with other functions as DNA takes over informational role

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29
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What are the 5 large mass extinctions?

A

Ordovician

Devonian

Permian

Triassic

Cretaceous

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30
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What is a symbiotic relationship?

A

When two species live in direct contact and aid the other

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31
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What is a endosymbiotic relationship?

A

One organsism lives inside the other

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32
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Evolution definition

A

Heritable change in one or more characteristics of a population or species from one generation to the next

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33
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Microevolution

A

Changes in a single gene in a population over time

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34
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Macroevolution

A

Formation of new species or groups of species

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35
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Natural selection basic concepts

A

Mutation arises in a population

Some alleles encode proteins that enhances an individual’s survival capability

These individuals are more likely to survive and contribute their genes to the gene pool of the next generation

Over many generations the frequencies of different alleles change

This alters the characteristics of the population

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36
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Genotype

A

Genetic composition of an individual

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37
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Phenotype

A

Characteristics that are the results of gene expression

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38
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Wild type allele

A

Most common allele in population

Encodes for normally function protein in the correct amount

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39
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Mutant alleles

A

Alleles altered by mutation

Tend to be rare in populations

Tend to be defective in their ability to express a functional protein

Occasionally results in a better protein than the wild type allele

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40
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Stages of cell cycle

A

G1 - First gap

S - DNA synthesis

G2 - Second gap

M - Mitosis

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41
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Overview of mitosis

A
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42
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Types of chromosomal mutations

A
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43
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What type of cell shape is this?

A

Bacillus

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44
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What type of cell shape is this?

A

Coccus

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45
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What type of cell shape is this?

A

Spirochete

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46
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What type of cell shape is this?

A

Vibrio

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47
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What is essential in maintaing the rod shape of cells?

A

MreB

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48
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What does a depletion of MreB cause?

A

Cells that should be rod shaped become cocci shaped

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49
Q

Biology of cells key slides

How do bacteria reproduce?

A

Binary fission

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50
Q

Microbiology

Gram positive cell wall structure

A
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51
Q

Microbiology

Gram negative cell wall structure

A
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54
Q

Microbiology

The gram negative bacteria’s unique outer membrane of the cell wall is called?

A

Lipopolysaccharide layer (LPS)

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55
Q

Microbiology

What’s unique about the LPS layer?

A

It is made up of lipopolysaccharides instead of the standard phospholipid molecules

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56
Q

Microbiology

Role of the LPS layer

A

Acts as a major barrier to the outside world

Offers protection against antiseptics and antibiotics

Acts as an endotoxin

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57
Q

Microbiology

How is an endotoxin released?

A

When the cell lyses and dies

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58
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What are the sources of genetic diversity in bacteria?

A

Mutations

Genetic transfer between cells

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59
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Types of genetic transfer among bacteria

A

Conjugation

Transformation

Transduction

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60
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Conjugation

A

Direct physical intereaction between cells

Genetic material transfered from donor to recipient cells

Usually in the form of a plasmid

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61
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Transformation

A

DNA released by a dead bacterium into the environment

Take up by another bacteria

62
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Transduction

A

Bacteial DNA transfered by bacteriophage virus

63
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What makes up a virus?

A

Nucleic acid (DNA or RNA)

Surrounded in protein coat (Capsid)

64
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Nucleocapsid

A

Whole unit of nucleic acid and capsid in a virus

65
Q

Biology of cells key slides

How can viruses be classified?

A

By their genome (DNA/RNA)

By the host they infect

By their structure

66
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Basic steps of how viruses divide

A
  1. Attach to host cell
  2. Entry
  3. Integration into host DNA
  4. Synthesis of viral components
  5. Viral assembly
  6. Release
67
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Are protists:

  • Prokayotes
  • Eukaryotes
A

Eukaryotes

68
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What are the building blocks of DNA and RNA

A

Nucleotides

69
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What is a genome?

A

Complete complement of an organisms genetic material

70
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What are the components of a nucleotide?

A

Phosphate group

Pentose sugar

Nitrogenous base

71
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Which nitorgenous bases are purines?

A

Adenine (A)

Guanine (G)

72
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What nitrogenous bases are pyrimadines?

A

Cytosine (C)

Thymine (T) Or

Uracil (U)

73
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What is the pentose sugar in DNA?

A

Deoxyribose

74
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What is the pentose sugar in RNA?

A

Ribose

75
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What are the main structure differences between DNA and RNA?

A

DNA is a double helix, RNA is a single strand

DNA has T instead of RNA’s U

DNA has deoxyribose instead of ribose

76
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Who came up with the rule for base pairing?

A

Chargoff

77
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Is it purines or pyrimidines that have a single ring?

A

Pyrimidines

78
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What covalently links nucleotides?

A

DNA polymerase

79
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Which process synthesises a specific polypeptide from mRNA?

A

Translation

80
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What is a promoter in DNA?

A

Site for RNA polymerase to bind

Signals the beginning of transcription

81
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What is a regulatory sequence in DNA?

A

Site for the binding of regulatory proteins

Influences the rate of transcription

82
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What is the transcribed region in DNA?

A

Contains the information that specifies an amino acid sequence

83
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What is the terminator in DNA?

A

Region of DNA that signals the end of transciption

84
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What are the 3 stages of transcription?

A
85
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What is removed from pre-mRNA after it has been transcribed to result in mature mRNA?

A

Introns

86
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What is each end region of RNA called?

A

5’ cap

3’ tail

87
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What happens to pre-mRNA to produce mature mRNA?

A

Capping

Splicing

Tailing

88
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What does splicing do in transcription?

A

Removes introns

89
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What are the 3 stages of translation?

A
90
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Which direction does the polypeptide produced in translation run?

A

5’ to 3’

Parallel with mRNA

91
Q

Biology of cells key slides

How does E.coli react to the availability of lactose in the environment? (Lac operon)

A
  1. Registers lactose in environment
  2. Bacterium produces more lactose permease and ß-galactosidase
  3. Bacterium uses up lactose
  4. Most proteins involved with lactose degraded
92
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Why does E.coli degrade the proteins to do with lactose get degraded when lactose levels fall?

A

To make better use of cells energy supplies

93
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Where does most bacterial gene regulation occur?

A

Transcription

94
Q

Biology of cells key slides

At what points can eukaryotic gene regulation occur?

A

Transcription

RNA processing

Translation

Post-translation

95
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Role of repressors in transcriptional regulation

A
96
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Role of activators in transcriptional regulation

A
97
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What are the major differences in regulation of transcription between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

A

Genes almost always organised individually in eukaryotes

Regulation more intricate in eukaryotes

98
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What is the advantages with alternative splicing?

A

2 or more different polypeptides can be derived from a single gene

Increases the size of the proteome while minimising the size of the genome

99
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Proteome

A

Entire set of proteins expressed by a genome

100
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Nonsense mutation

A

Changes a normal codon to a stop codon

Produces a truncated polypeptide

101
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Frameshift mutation

A

Add or deletes nucleotides that are not a multiple of 3

Completely different amino acid sequence downstream (after) mutation

102
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Silent mutation

A

Causes no change to polypeptide

103
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Base substitution

A

One base swapped for another

Can have varying effects

104
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Missense mutation

A

Changes one amino acid to one that normally wouldnt be coded

105
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Thymine dimers

A

Cuased by UV radiation

Two adjacent thymines form a double bond with each other rathen than the adenine on parellel strand

106
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Potentail effects of a thymine dimer

A

Cause a mutation when DNA strand is replicated as proper base pairing doesn’t occur

107
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Types of DNA repair

A

Direct repair

Nucleotide excision repair

108
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Direct DNA repair

A

Enzyme removes the modification

109
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Nucleotide excision repair

A

Altered DNA strand replaced with sythesised one

110
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Term for when cancer cells enter blood stream or surrounding body fluids

A

Metastasis

111
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What are oncogenes?

A

Mutated genes producing cell growth factors

More active than usual

112
Q

Biology of cells key slides

How do oncogenes promote cancer?

A

Have high levels of activity of cell growth signalling protein production

Keep cell division signalling pathway in permanent “on” position

113
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What is the Ras protein?

A

Intracellular signaling protein

Promotes cell division when GTP is bound

114
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Intracellular

A

Inside the cell

115
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Intercellular

A

Between cells

116
Q

Biology of cells key slides

How can oncogenes effect the Ras protein?

A

Decrease ability of Ras to hydrolyse GTP or exchange GDP for GTP faster

Either way keeps signalling pathway on

117
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Checkpoint proteins

A

Proteins that check for mutations during cell cycle

Stop the formation of complexes that make cells progress through the cell cycle if detects mutations

118
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Which checkpoint protein is associated with about 50% of cancers?

A

p53

119
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What proteins are responsible for advancing the cell through the cell life cycle?

A

Cyclins

Cyclin-dependant protein kinases (cdks)

120
Q

Biology of cells key slides

p53

A

G1 checkpoint protein

Expression is induced when DNA is damaged

Stops cell progressing through life cycle from G1

Cell can proceed if DNA is repaired

121
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Steps of gene cloning

A
  1. Isolate vector DNA
  2. Insert gene of interest into vector
  3. Introduce recombinant vector into host cell that doesn’t already have any vectors
  4. Host cell divides and produces many cells with recombinant vector
122
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Genomics

A

Molecular analysis of the entire genome of a species

123
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Phases of genomics

A

Structural

Functional

124
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Structural genomics

A

Where on the chromosomes are the genes?

125
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Functional genomics

A

Studies expression of genes

126
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What is insulin composed of?

A

Polypeptides A and B

127
Q

Biology of cells key slides

What is a genetically modified organism?

A

An organism that carries genes introduced using molecular techniques such as gene cloning

128
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Gene replacement

A

Cloned gene recombines with normal gene on a chromosome

129
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Gene knockout

A

Clone gene inserted is a mutation that innactivates function

Homozygote will not have gene function

130
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Alternative splicing

A

mRNA produced that may not have all the exons that the pre-mRNA had

Can produce different polypeptides from the same DNA

131
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Types of cell signalling

A

Direct intercellular

Contact dependant

Autocrine

Paracrine

Endocrine

132
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Direct intercellular cell communication

A

Occurs through gap junctions

133
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Contact dependent cell communication

A

Membrane bound signalling molecule interacts with membrane bound receptor

134
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Autocrine cell communication

A

Diffuses locally

Affetcs cells that make it + others of that type

135
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Paracrine cell communication

A

Diffuses locally

Affects nearby cells

Includes synaptic signalling via neurotransmitters

136
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Endocrine cell communication

A

Uses hormones

Travel the whole body via the blood

137
Q

Biology of cells key slides

How do non-polar signals work in cell communication?

A

Can diffuse through the lipid bilayer

Encounters its receptor in the cytoplasm

138
Q

Biology of cells key slides

How do polar and/or large signals work in cell communication?

A

Can’t diffuse across the cell plasma membrane

Receptor is embeded in membrane

Causes change to receptor part inside cell

139
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Ligand gated ion channels in cell communication

A

Signal binds to ion channel protein

Ion channel protein changes shape and opens

Ions pass down concentration gradient

Some are chemically gated as they respond to chemical signal

140
Q

Biology of cells key slides

G-protein-coupled receptors

A

7 transmembrane spanning proteins

Signals transmitted via elaborate relay cascade

Target proteins for them are ion channel proteins and membrane bound enzymes

141
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Differential gene regulation

A

The same signal can have different effects in different cells

142
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Ways differential gene regulation can happen

A

Receptor may or may not be expressed

May be more than one type of receptor

Different affinity of receptors amongst cells

Molecules in signalling cascades expressed differently

Proteins controlled by signalling pathways may be different

143
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Signalling cascade

A

One molecule binds with a receptor

Activate multiple molecules

These in turn activate many molecules each

Continues and builds

144
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Tight junctions

A

Seal tissues

145
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Types of cells junctions

A

Tight junctions

Anchoring junctions

Gap junctions

146
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Anchoring junctions

A

Anchors cells to each other and extracellular matrix

147
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Gap junctions

A

Allows communication between cells

148
Q

Biology of cells key slides

Extracellular matrix

A

Network of material secreted from cells

Forms complex meshwork outside cells

Biology of Cells Key slides (1 decks)

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