key science skills Flashcards
the scientific method
is centred around generating an informed hypothesis and then testing it to generate evidence that either supports or refutes it.
model
a representation of a concept, process, or behaviour, often made to simplify or make something easier to understand
theory
a proposition or set of principles that is used to explain something or make predictions about cause and effect.
empirical evidence
information obtained through direct and systematic observation or experimentation
aim
a statement outlining the purpose of the investigation
hypothesis
a testable prediction about the outcome of the experiment.
independent variable
the variable for which quantities are manipulated by the experimenter
dependent variable
is what the researcher measures in an experiment for changes due to the effect of the IV
controlled variables
Controlled variables are variables other than the IV that a researcher holds constant (controls) in an investigation, to ensure that changes in the DV are solely due to changes in the IV.
controlled experiments
Often used because they allow a researcher to strictly manipulate variables of interest (independent variables) in a controlled environment and measure their effect on another variable (the dependent variable).
3 types of controlled experimental designs
within subjects, between and mixed
within subjects design
experimental design in which participants complete every experimental condition.
2 advantages of a within subjects design
ensures that the results of the experiment are due to the manipulation of the IV rather than participant differences, less people are needed
2 disadvantages of a within subjects design
order effects, a participant withdrawing from this experiment has a greater impact on the study as the experimenter may lose 3 data points instead of one
between subjects design
individuals are divided intodifferent groups and complete only one experimental condition.
2 advantages of between subjects design
less time consuming, does not create order effects
2 disadvantages of a between subjects design
more participants are required, participant differences across groups can affect results
mixed design
Combines elements of within-subjectsand between-subjects designs.
2 advantages of a mixed design
allows experimenters to compare results across both experimental conditions, allows multiple experimental conditions to be compared to a control
2 disadvantages of a mixed design
can be more costly and time consuming, demanding for researchers
case study
A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, or particular phenomenon that contains a real or hypothetical situation
correlational studies
A type of non-experimental study in which researchers observe and measure the relationship between two or more variables without any manipulation of them.
identification
is a process of recognition of phenomena as belonging to particular setsor possibly being part of a new or unique set. used by psychologists to then ascribe phenomena to a particular classification
classification
the arrangement of phenomena, objects, or events into manageable sets
fieldwork
refers to any research involving observation and interaction with people and environments in real-world settings, conducted beyond the laboratory.
5 types of fieldwork
direct observation, qualitative interview, questionaires, focus groups and yarning circles
direct observation
A researcher watches and listens to the participants of a study, with no direct intervention and involvement,or manipulation of variables.
qualitative interview
Involve a researcher asking questions to gather in-depth information about a particular topic, theme, or idea. The interview may be structured, but the questions are generally open ended so that participants can provide lengthier, more detailed answers.
questionaires
Are a set of questions or prompts given to participants to answer digitally or with pen and paper. Questions may be open-ended or closed
focus groups
A qualitative research method which involves aresearcher conducting a discussion with a small group of people (usually 8–12) on a specific topic. Groups are formed on the basis of some shared characteristics
yarning circles
In Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures, this is atraditional approach to group discussionwhich involves talking, exchanging ideas, reflection and deep, considered listening withoutjudgement.
literature review
Literature review refers to the process of collating and analysing secondary data related to other people’s scientific findings and/or viewpoints, in order to answer a question or provide background information to help explain observed events, or as preparation for an investigation to generate primary data
modelling
Models/modelling is helpful for understanding, problem solving, or simulating various psychological phenomena and can be physical or conceptual
Product, process or system of development
refers broadly to the designor evaluation of an artefact, process, or system to meet a human need, which may involve technological applications, in addition to scientific knowledge and procedures.
simulation
Simulation refers to the process of using a model to study the behaviour of a real or theoretical system.
3 advantages of controlled experiments
allow researches to infer casual relationships between and draw conclusions about specific variables, provide researches with a high level of control over conditions and variables, they are controlled so it can be repeated to check results
3 disadvantages of controlled experiments
since they are conducted in labs they do not reflect real life, experimenter effects, time consuming
2 advantages of case studies
provide highly detailed, rich information about a particular phenomenon under study, allows rare phenomena to be examined in depth
3 disadvantages of case studies
results cannot be generalised to a wider population as case studies often involve a small group, subject to researcher bias and errors, can be hard to find cause and effect
3 advantages of correlational studies
no manipulation of variables, provide ideas for future hypothesis, provides info about the association between variables
2 disadvantages of correlational studies
cannot draw cause and effect, extraneous variables can influence them
2 advantages of fieldwork
occur over a longer time period, conducted in naturalistic settings so findings are more applicable to the real world
2 disadvantages of fieldwork
time consuming and expensive to conduct and record data, difficult to control extraneous variables
2 advantages of literature review
provides background info, may uncover patterns of knowledge and gaps of knowledge
2 disadvantages to literature reviews
time consuming, difficult to do if little research has been done
2 advantages of modelling
provide explanatory tools, allows researchers to problem solve
1 disadvantage of modelling
they may over simplify if inaccurately represent reality
1 advantage to product, process or system of development
creates “ “ that meet a human need
1 disadvantage to product process or system development
expensive and time consuming
2 advantages to simulation
provides insight into potential circumstanecs, allows researchers to view micro phenomena in detail
2 disadvantages to simulation
time consuming and expensive, subject to human error
population
refers to the group of people who are the focus of the research and from which the sample is drawn.
3 sampling techniques
convenience, random, stratified
convenience sampling
Refers to any sampling technique that involves selecting readily available members of the population, rather than using a random or systematic approach.
random sampling
Refers to any sampling technique that uses a procedure to ensure everymember of the population has the same chance of being selected.
stratified sampling
involves selecting people from the populationin a way that ensures that its strata (subgroups) are proportionally represented in the sample.
1 advantage of convenience sampling
time and cost effective
1 limitation of convenience sampling
most likely to produce an unrepresentative sample
2 advantages of random sampling
reduces experimenter bias when selecting participants, can be representative if the sample is large
2 limitations of random sampling
time consuming, may be unrepresentative if the sample is small
1 advantage of stratified sampling
most likely to produce a representative sample
1 limitation of stratified sampling
time consuming/expensive
allocation
refers to the process of assigning participants to experimental conditions or groups.
extraneous variables
isany variable that is not the IV but may causeanunwanted effect on theDV
confounding variables
refers to a variable that has directly and systematicallyaffectedthe DV, apart from the IV
7 examples of confounding and extraneous variables
demand characteristics, order effects, participant related variables, placebo effect, experimenter effects, non-standardised testing procedures, situational variables.
participant related variables
refer tocharacteristics of a study’s participants that may affect the results.
order effects
Refers to the tendency for the order in which participants complete experimentalconditions to have an effect on their behaviour.includes practice and fatigue effects
placebo effect
The placebo effect is a type of expectancy effect. Where a participants expectations about the treatment/ condition cause changes in their behaviour (the DV). This makes it impossible to tell if the results (DV) are because of the actual effects of the IV OR because of expectancy.
experimenter effects
refers to when the expectationsof the researcher affect the results of an experiment.
situational variables
Refer to any environmental factor that may affect the dependent variable such as: temperature, lighting, weather, and time of day.
demand characteristics
Refer to cues in an experiment that may signal to a participant the intention of the study and influence their behaviour.
objective data
factual data that is observed and measured independently of personal opinion.
subjective data
data that isinformed bypersonal opinion,perception, or interpretation.
accuracy
Refers to how close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity beingmeasured.
precision
Refers to howclosely a set of measurement values agree with eachother but gives no indication of how close the measurements are to the true value
systematic errors
Systematic errors are errors in data that differ from the true value by a consistent amount.
random error
errors in data that are unsystematic and occur due to chance.
how to reduce random errors (2)
repeatingand conducting more measurements, increasing sample size
how to reduce systematic errors (2)
personal error
miscalculations or mistakes made by the experimenter
how to reduce personal errors (2)
ensure the method is followed correctly, using multiple researchers
repeatability
the extent to which the same study or measure used under the same conditions will produce the same results.
reproducibility
the same study or measure, used under different conditions or with different people or procedures, will produce the same results
validity
refers to the extent to which psychological tools and investigations truly support their findings or conclusions. A valid measure is one that measures whatit intends to measure.
internal validity
Is the extent to which an investigation measures or investigates what itclaims to
external validity
External validity is the extent to which the results of an investigation can be applied to similar individuals in differentsettings
justice
the moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims; that there is no unfair burden on a particular group from an action
non-maleficence
the principle of avoiding harm
beneficence
refers to the commitment to maximising benefits and minimising the risks and harms involved in taking a particular position
integrity
the commitment to searching for knowledge and understnad and the honest reporting of all sources of info
respect
the consideration of the extent to which living things have an intrinsic value and/or instrumental value;
confidentiality
refers to the privacy, protection and security of a participants personal info
informed consent procedures
are processes that ensure participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment including potential risks before agreeing to participate
deception
refers to the act of intentionally misleading participants about the true nature of a study or procedure
debriefing
is a procedure that ensures that at the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions
voluntary participation
a principle that ensures there is no coercion or pressure put on the participant to partake in an experiment and they freely choose to be involved
withdrawal rights
refer to the right of participants to be able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during or after
