Key Science Skills Flashcards
what is psychology?
the scientific study of human mental states and behaviour
what is the scientific method?
a procedure used to obtain knowledge
what is a model?
a representation of a concept, process or behaviour often made to simplify and represent
what is a theory?
proposition or set of principles that is used to explain something or make predictionsw
what is an aim?
a statement outlining the purpose of the investigation
what is a hypothesis?
a testable prediction about the outcome of an investigation
what does operationalising variables refer to?
specifying exactly how the variables will be measured and manipulated in a controlled experiment
what are controlled variables?
things that can affect the dependent variable in an experiment besides the independent variable
what are the key points of a controlled experiment?
allow a researcher to strictly manipulate variables of interest, in a controlled environment
* Researchers can infer a causal relationship
* There are controlled and experimental groups
what is a control group
group of participants who receive no experimental treatment or intervention in order to serve as a comparative baseline
what is an experimental group?
the group of participants who are exposed to a manipulated independent variable
what is a within subjects design?
an experimental design in which participants complete every experimental condition
what are some pros and cons of a within subjects design?
Pros- eliminate participant differences, cost effective, time effective
Cons- produce order effects, participants dropping out significantly impacts the study (loose 2 points of data)
what is a between subjects design?
an experimental in which individuals are divided into different groups and complete only one experimental condition
what are some pros and cons of a between subjects design?
Pros- less time consuming, eliminates the possibility of order effects
Cons- participant related differences, more participants required, experimenter effect may occur
what is a mixed design?
an experimental which combines elements of within-subjects and between-subjects design
what are some pros and cons of a mixed design?
Pros- allows experimenters to compare results, creates a baseline/ control group
Cons- demanding for researchers and assistants, costly, time consuming
what is a case study?
is an in-depth investigation of a individual group or particular phenomenon that contains a real or hypothetical situation
what is a correlational study?
a non-experimental study in which researchers observe and measure the relationship between two or more variables without any manipulation of them
what is a positive correlation?
variables change together in the same way
what is a negative correlation?
variables change in opposite directions
what is zero correlation?
no relationship between variables (no noticeable correlation)
what is classification?
the arrangement of phenomena, objects or events into manageable sets based on common features and characteristics
- Used to create labels
what is identification and what is it used for?
a process of recognition of phenomena as belonging to a particular set or possibly being part of a new or unique set
-Assign certain things to their respective groups
what is fieldwork?
refers to any research involving observation and interaction with people and environments in real-world settings, conducted beyond the laboratory
what is direct observation?
a researcher watches and listens to the participants of the study with no direct intervention (it may use deception)
what is a qualitative interview?
researcher asking questions to gather in-depth information about a particular topic, theme or idea, asking open-ended questions
what is a questionnaire?
a set of questions or prompts given to participants to answer digitally or with pen and paper
what is a focus group?
a researcher conducting a discussion with a small group of people on a specific topic, it may induce conformity and therefore group shift and group think
what is a yarning circle?
traditional approach to group discussion which involves talking, exchanging ideas, reflection and deep considered listening without judgement, it is highly accepting and the researcher is involved
what is literature review?
refers to the process of collating and analysing secondary data related to other people’s scientific findings and/or viewpoints
what is primary data?
data collected first hand by a researcher
what is secondary data?
data collected by others (literature reviews are always secondary)
what is modelling?
assists in understanding, problem solving, or simulating various psychological phenomenon, used to simplify and represent.
what is a simulation?
- refers to the process of using a model (tangible) to study the behaviour of a real or theoretical system
what is an extraneous variable?
any variable that is not the independent variable (IV) but may cause an unwanted effect on the dependent variable
what are the 5 types of fieldwork?
direct observation, qualitative interview, questionnaires, focus groups, yarning circles
what is stratified sampling?
selecting people from the population in a way that ensures that its strata (subgroups) are proportionately represented in the sample
what is random sampling?
any sampling technique that uses a procedure to ensure every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
what is convenience sampling?
any sampling technique that involves selecting readily available members of the population, rather than using a random or systematic approach
what is allocation?
to the process of assigning participants to experimental conditions or groups
what are the 7 EV’s?
participant differences, order effects, placebo effects, experimenter effects, situational variables, non standardised instructions, demand characteristics
what are participant related differences?
Characteristics of a study’s participants that may effect the results, eg: age, intelligence, gender
how do you prevent participant related differences?
Using a larger sample size increasing the samples representativeness.
Using random or stratified sampling
what are order effects?
The order in which participants complete experimental conditions to have an effect on their behaviour. (specific to within-subjects design)
how do you prevent order effects?
- Using a between subjects design as participants then only complete one experimental condition.
- Using counterbalancing for a mixed/ within subjects design.
what is placebo effect?
Expectancy effect where participants expectations about the treatment/condition cause changes in their behaviour
how do you prevent the placebo effect?
Placebo- an inactive treatment/condition, equalises level of expectancy or participants are less likely to have expectations
what is the experimenter effect?
Refers to when the expectations of the researcher affect the results of an experiment
how do you prevent the experimenter effect?
Refers to when the expectations of the researcher affect the results of an experiment
What are situational variables?
Any environmental factor that may affect the dependent variable eg: lighting, temperature, time of day
how do you prevent situational variables?
Standardised testing conditions and procedures- (situational variables can only be reduced not eliminated)
what are Non-standardised instructions & procedures?
When directions and procedures differ across participants or experimental conditions, introduces situational variables
how do you prevent Non-standardised instructions & procedures?
Standardised testing conditions and procedures
what are demand characteristics?
Cues in an experiment that may signal to a participant the intention of the study and influence their behaviour
how do you prevent demand characteristics?
Double blind procedure- in which both the participants and the experimenter don’t know which conditions the groups are allocated to
what is secondary data?
data sourced from others/prior research
what is primary data?
data collected first-hand by a researcher
what is qualitative data?
data that is expressed non-numerically
what is quantitative data?
data that is expressed numerically
what is objective data?
- factual data that is observed and measured independently of personal opinion
what is subjective data?
data that is informed by personal opinion, perception, or interpretation (biased)
what are descriptive statistics?
Statistics that summarise, organise and describe data
what are measures of central tendency?
Descriptive statistics that summarise a data set by describing the centre of the distribution of the data with a single value
what is a mean?
describes the numerical average of a data set as a single value
what is a median?
the middle value in a data set ordered from lowest to highest
what is a mode?
the most frequently occurring value in a data set
what are measures of variability?
Statistics that summarise and describe the spread and distribution of a data set, they help to indicate how widely participants responses vary in a data set
what is range?
value obtained by subtracting the lowest value from the highest value
what is standard deviation?
shows how much data ‘deviates’ from the mean
what does accuracy refer to?
refers to how close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity being measured
what does precision refer to?
how closely a set of measurement values agree with each other
what are systematic errors?
errors in data that differ from the true value by a consistent amount
what are random errors?
errors in data that are unsystematic and occur due to chance
what is repeatability?
Extent to which successive measurements would produce the same results when carried out under identical conditions
what is reproducibility?
Extent to which successive measurements would produce the same results when carried out under different conditions
what is beneficence?
The commitment to maximising benefits and minimising harm involved in taking a particular action, investigation
what is integrity?
The commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding, and the honest reporting of all sources of information and results
what is justice?
The moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims, and no unfair burden on a particular group from an action
what is non-maleficence?
Principle of avoiding causing harm, and any harm caused shouldn’t be disproportionate to the benefits for any course of action
what is respect?
Consideration of the extent to which living things have an intrinsic value/ instrumental value
what is confidentiality?
Refers to the privacy, protection and security of a participants personal information in terms of personal details and the anonymity of individual results
what are informed consent procedures?
Processes that ensure participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential risks before agreeing to participate in the study
what is deception
Refers to the act of intentionally misleading participants about the true nature of a study or procedure. Only permissible when the true nature of the study may effect their behaviour and subsequently the study’s validity
what is debriefing?
A procedure that ensures at the end of an experiment the participant leaves understanding the experiments conclusions and any potential use of deception
what is voluntary participation?
Ensures that there is no coercion or pressure put on participants to partake in an experiment and that they freely choose to be involved
what are withdrawal rights?
The right of participants to be able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during, or after the conclusion of an experiment without any penalty
