Key Knowledge

Question 1

Global systems

Answer 1

Refers to any organisation, groupings, or activities that link different parts of the world (for example TNC’s

Question 2

Global governance

Answer 2

Refers to attempts to regulate global systems and activities. For example the UN, IMF, world trade organisations and world bank

Question 3

Globalisation

Answer 3

A process which national economies, societies and cultures have become increasingly integrated through the global network of trade, communication, transport and immigration

Question 4

When did globalisation start

Answer 4

• first wave in 1492 as many countries gained empires form which they sourced raw matierisls and labour
• second wave in 1960’s due spatial breakdown of barriers

Question 5

3 main forms/dimensions of globalisation

Answer 5

• economic globalisation: long distance flows of goods, capital and services as well as information that accompany market exchanges (largely caused by the growth of TNC’s, free trade, faster and cheaper transport)
• social globalisation: expressed as the spread of ideas, information, images and people largely (migration, impact of western culture)
• political globalisation: spread of government policies and the influence of international bodies such as the United Nations (growth of western democracies)

Question 6

Core-periphery model

Answer 6

• the core includes wond powers and the countries that contain the wealth of planet, money, resources and people flow onto the core
• the periphery had those countries that are not reaping the benefits of global wealth of globalisation

Question 7

KOF index

Answer 7

• an index of the degree of globalisation. It takes into account the three dimensions of globalisation (economic, social and political)
• The KOF index is a score each country is given out of 100, the higher the number the more Globalised the country is considered to be.
• the KOF index highlights the core-periphery model

Question 8

Dimension/flows of core periphery model

Answer 8

• flows of capital (money and investment)
• flows of labour (migration)
• flows of product (trade and shipping)
• flows of services and flows of information

Question 9

Globalisation: flows of products

Answer 9

• globalised world means more products need to be transported from their place of manufacture to thru chosen market -> greatly helped by containerisation-> millions of shipments being moved cheaply and quickly around the world each year.
• removal of taxes and tariffs + encouragement of global trade by groups such as WTO = greater levels of trade

Question 10

Flows of services

Answer 10

• activities that aren’t based around producing material goods e.g. banking and insurance
  -> improvements in ICT allowed services to become global industries in recent decades
  -> during 1970’s and 1980’s there was also deregulation + opening up of national financial markets to the rest of the world -> easier for banks + other financial institutions to do business in other countries
• services can be spilt into levels:
  > low level (e.g. customer service)
  > high level (e.g. financial services)
• increasing flows of services are making the world more interconnected

Question 11

Flows of information

Answer 11

• from January 2015 to January 2016, there has been 10% growth in number of active internet users and also in the number of active social media users
  -> internet use change between 2012 and 2016 =
• overall, everywhere has increased
• the largest increase was in Asia where in east Asia there was a 30% increase
• the core has continued growth at a decent speed and overall there is greater internet use in the core

Question 12

Flows of capital

Answer 12

• what?
  > international flows of capital refers to all financial transfers between companies for investment, trade or production
  > capital is money invested
  > flow boosted in late 20th century by deregulation of financial services -> allowing banks and companies to move freely across national boundaries
  -where?
  > 2002 = most flow from the USA&Canada to Western Europe
  > Africa and Middle East less flows (mainly within the core)
  > compared to 2012, 1.5% increase in quantity of flow of money around the world
  -> less flow in comparison from 2002 from Western Europe and the US&Canada
  -> more flows in Asia (greater flows)
  -> however Southern Africa still have minimal flows of money
  -> the money is expanding beyond the core

Question 13

Flows of labour

Answer 13

• what?
  > more people are moving to different countries, e.g. international migration has doubled since 1975 -> due to: conflict zones, skilled work
  > most migration can lead to remittance (payment of money that is transferred to another party)
  > easily observed links between the flows of labour and remittances which is no great surprise
• where?
  > between 2010 and 2015, NA, Europe and Oceania had a net inflow over 2 million immigrants a year
  > NA receive the most migrants, mainly from Asia, Africa and Latin America + the Caribbean -> Europe receive the second most, from same places
  > the main sender of emigrants are from Asia then Africa and then latin America + the Caribbean
  > remittances are sent back -> 22.2 billion sent back to Mexico -> the main host nation from remittances so from the USA
  > GDP: North west Africa and Central America have much of their GDP due to remittances
  > every year the Somali diaspora sends home approximately $1.2 billion remittances account for 25-45% of Somalia’s economy

Question 14

Factors that have facilitated the spread and speed of globalisation

Answer 14

1. Communication developments
2. Transport developments
3. Financial developments
4. Security developments
5. Trade agreements
6. Management systems
7. Information systems

Question 15

The shrinking world: flight, TV and the car

Answer 15

• flight
  > 1919 = first plane BUT crash landed
  > THEN: Airships (zeppelins) -> best was the 1920/30s Hindenburg regularly flying to NYC
  -> 1937: hydrogen was holding them up but hydrogen is very explosive (this marked the end of airship era)
  > 1950/60’s -> small planes around Europe
  > 1969: Boeing 747 constructed -> $6000 for a return ticket -> died 2003
  > fibre optics -> figure = 6 million phone calls at once
• TV
  > early news = had to be planned -> birthing instant -> all caught on reels (only 1)
  Only shown in cinemas therefore massive delays
  > 1936 = first TV broadcast
  > WW2 = TV blackout (ended TV)
  > 1952, queens coronation -> 1 million sold in 2 months
• the car
  > Ford model T = first mass produced car (1908) BUT can’t go uphill
  > Ford cortina I’m 1962 -> mass produced, affordable = shrinks the country
  > HELP: The motorway -> M1 first stretch opened in 1959 -> 70mph (eventually)

Question 16

What is containerisation

Answer 16

A system of standardised transport that uses a common size of steel container to transport goods (20 or 40 ft) first introduced in 1956

Question 17

What was global trade like before containers

Answer 17

• not standardised -> therefore slow, packaging = crates, boxes and sacks
• needed 100’s dockers (everything done by hand)
• boats idled on port for up to a week
• “made in Britain”

Question 18

How have containers improved global trade

Answer 18

• 1956 - 1st container ports developed (less dockers)
• 1960’s - cellular container ship
• trucks + trains modified
• cheaper
• opened up new markets
• ‘MAERSK’ first containers and are the biggest brand

Question 19

The development of the container

Answer 19

• Malcolm McLean, American truck driver in the 1950’s owned his own shipping company -> worked with engineer Keith Tantlinger to develop the modern container. Efficiently designed to be carried securely by cranes
  -> Tantlinger convinced him to give the patented designs to industry -> this began standardisation of shipping containers

Question 20

Container ports

Answer 20

• come into service in 1956 -> first used converted oil tanker to ship 58 containers from Newark, New Jersey to Houston, Texas -> originally planned to remain on trucks and trailers
• in first 15 years, many companies tried to copy but not its standardised measurements
• late 1960’s international organisation for standardisation (ISO) introduced standardised dimensions for shipping containers including 20ft and 40ft containers
• IMPACT: greatly reduced the expense of international trade and increased speed -> also increased unemployment in areas (also decline in some areas like Salford quays)
• 1965, dock labour could only move at 1.7 tonnes/hour -> in port for a week or more -> 1970, 30 tonnes/hour onto a cargo ship allowing bigger ships to be used and leave the same day
• FELIXSTOWE: uk’s most important trading port trading 2 million containers a year - 38.5 million TEU (twenty ft equivalent unit) situated 90 miles from NE London on Nirth sea coast if suffolk
  > now possible to shift £500,000 worth of consumer electronics from Shanghai to Felixstowe for about £2000
  > 2018: 40ty largest container port in the world and 7th in Europe

Question 21

Container ships

Answer 21

• measured by number of containers they can carry (number of 20ft long containers known as TEU)
• largest ships known as ultra large container vessels (ULCV) and are up to 400m in length and can carry 15,000 TEU’s -> largest one being Marks lens ‘triple E’ vessels built in South Korea and can carry in excess 18,000 TEU, weighing 165,000 tonnes, nearly 60m wide and 73m high
  -HOWEVER: cannot Saul everywhere: Panama -> people voted in 2006 to expand canal in 2016 it opened costing $15 billion however the nation is expected to increase to earnings
• there are concerns that the worlds merchant fleet that contains oil tankers and bulk carriers are responsible for adding greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and contributing to climate change; large ships use ‘bunker fuel’ which is the dirtiest liquid fuel around, frequently so viscous that it barely flows -> has up to 2000x the sulphur permitted in the diesel fuel that’s used for road vehicles and therefore a major polluter of the atmosphere

Question 22

Communication development

Answer 22

• 100 years ago: communication was by letter. By 1916, we had steam boasts crossing the Atlantic which took 2 weeks. A letter would take approximately a week to arrive
• 50 years ago: after WW2, planes began transporting mail across the globe. This took 10 hours in the air, and would arrive in a week
• today: 300 billion emails will be sent today, 4 billion people now have an email account, over 6 billion texts are sent each day, 91% of the world now use a mobile device -> communications has exponentially increased in volume

Question 23

Communication: who connects with who

Answer 23

• NA, Europe, South Asia all have many connections I.e. via Facebook. The populations of Oceania and South America are also very connected via Facebook however, countries that you would expect, such as China and Russia aren’t -> this is a result of the government restricting their access to Facebook. The majority of Africa has few Facebook connections as a result of their lower development

Question 24

What happens in an internet minute (from 2018 to 2021

Answer 24

• in 2018, $862,823 spent, increased by 85% to $1.6m in 2022
• 2018, 187m emails sent, 5% increase to 197.6m in 2021
• Facebook: 2018 973,000 logins, 43% increase to 1.4m in 2021
• 2021: LinkedIn 9132 connections made

Question 25

How have changes in finance facilitated the process of globalisation

Answer 25

• linked to technological development (e.g. internet)
• protectionism
  > the policy of protecting domestic industries against foreign competition by means of tariffs, subsidsidies, import quotas, or other restrictions or handicaps placed on the imports of foreign competitors
• trade liberalisation
  > the removal or reduction of restrictions or barriers on the free exchange of goods between nations. These barriers barriers include tariffs, such as duties and surcharges and non-tariff barriers, such as listening rules and quotas

Question 26

Trade blocs

Answer 26

• the role of the global organisations such as the WTO and UN is to encourage global integration and more towards free trade. However, the rules often discriminate in favour of HIC’s
• as a result, since 1950’s, trade clocks have been formed by countries joining together in to form trade agreements in order to stimulate trade between themesleves for economic gain
• have become increasingly influential in world trade
• advantages in enabling free trade between geographically close counties. This can lead to lower prices, increased export potential, higher growth, economies of scale and greater competition

Question 27

Different types of trading blocs

Answer 27

• free trade area: an area where internal barriers/ tariffs are abolished but where external barriers are maintained with no common policy (NAFTA)
• customs union: internal barriers/tariffs are abolished, now with common external barriers (EU)
• common market: Internal barriers/tariffs are abolished. Common external barriers, free movement of resources (labour) amount member countries
• economic union: internal barriers/tariffs are abolished. Common external barriers, free movement of resources (labour) amount member countries AND money, and a uniform set of economic policies (product regulation)
• full political union: increasing integration between countries, more institutions, decreasing national sovereignty

Question 28

Advantages of trading blocs

Answer 28

• within political unions people are free to live and work in the county of their choice, as in EU. This means workers have more choice and can improve living standards for poorer members, such as Poland
• trade blocks decrease monopoly: goods and services flow freely and create greater choice for consumers. This in turn creates greater competition in the market and forces firms to increase innovation and efficiency to stay competitive
• in a trading bloc markets become larger with the reduction/removal of tariffs making prices lower for consumers
• trade blocs five smaller countries more power and a greater say in global trade agreements

Question 29

Disadvantages of trading blocs

Answer 29

• loss of sovereignty and independence. A trading bloc needs to make decisions for the whole area, they may go counter to the particular wishes of a county and may favour stronger members
• there is no protection for domestic industries from other bloc members exports. This disadvantages the weaker/smaller members of the bloc
• some smaller nations may lose skilled workers due to free flow of people as they I’ve to potentially higher paying jobs within the trade bloc
• a trade bloc distorts the benefits of world trade; allows inefficient firms to survive and are protected from more efficient firms outside the bloc

Question 30

The world trade organisation (WTO)

Answer 30

• only international organisation dealing with the global rules of trade. Main function is to ensure that trade flows as smoothly, predictably sad freely as possible
• it’s a forum of governments to negotiate trade agreements. It’s a place for them to settle trade disputes and operates system of trade rules
• rules they set out are dedicated to open fair and undistorted competition. They spell out principles of liberalisation including individual countries. Commitments to lower custom tariffs and other trade barriers and to open service markets
• disputes are usually resolved through negotiations, if not the WTO members can request the establishment of the panel to settle the dispute

Question 31

The world bank (flow of capital)

Answer 31

• international development owned by 188 countries whose role is to reduce poverty by lending money to governments of its poorer members to improve their economies and standard of living for the people -> e.g. they gave $470m to the Philippines in 2014 for a poverty reducing programme
• the world bank requires recipients to adopt trade liberalisation policies and to open. FDI by removing legal restrictions and capital controls
• developing countries usually prefer to borrow from China as they don’t impose such conditions, has helped LIC’s to deeper ties to global economy, criticism = puts economic development before social development

Question 32

The International Monetary Fund (IMF)

Answer 32

• aims to maintain a stable international financial system, and this promotes free trade and globalisation
• founded in 1945 - to promote global economic and financial stability, and encourage ,ore open economies
• IMF funding comes from: countries paying their capital subscription (quotas -> main form of funding), alongside multilateral + bilateral borrowing agreements
• provides financial support to countries hit by crises, implementing policies that restore economic stability and growth
• example: 2008, Greece received the first in a series of IMF loans when its foreign currency earnings were insufficient to pay its existing debt obligations
• however: criticised for promoting ‘western’ model of economic development that works in the interest of developed countries + their TNC’S

Question 33

The United Nations (UN)

Answer 33

• international non profit organisation formed in 1945 to increase political + economic cooperation among its member countries (193]
  1. General assembly: make decisions on important questions, such as on peace and security
  2. Security council p: primary responsibility of the maintenance of international peace and security (15, 5 permanent, 10 non-permanent members)
  3. Economic and social council: principle body for coordination, policy review, policy dialogue + recommendations on economic, social and environmental issues
  4. Trusteeship council: international supervision for 11 trust territories (under administration of seven member states)
  5. International court of justice: role is to settle in accordance with international law, legal disputes + give advice
  6. Secretariat: thousands of staff, working on peacekeeping missions around the world

Question 34

Problems with interdependence: unequal flows of people/labour

Answer 34

• types: voluntary migration (chooses to move of their own free will e.g. for work, a better life, a new job); forced migration (war, famine, natural hazards, religious or racial persecution)
• international migration within EU: 2004 A8 countries (eastern Europe) join by 2009 in uk, nearly half a million were resident in the uk, making up 1.6% of the workforce
• international migration in china: 1970s they opened up to international trade -> its manufacturing sector expanded enormously in its coastal provinces such as Guangdong on the Pearl River Delta. Most factory employees are from chinas rural interior
• Asian workers in Middle East: well established destinations for migrant workers from the Indian sub-continent and south east Asia, especially the Philippines -> women typically take jobs as domestic servants while men are predominantly employed in the construction industry-> long&hard work while conditions are often poor
  -> in 2008, when economy crashed in Dubai, the cancellation of building projects forced tens of thousands of Indian labourers to return home without compensation
  -> In 2013, quasar, where 1.2 million migrants are employed, was accused of brutal exploitation of its foreign workforce
• movement of Mexicans to the USA: US immigration act of 1921 set a quota for Europeans immigrants, but a powerful American farming lobby blocked a quota for Mexicans to protect its source of cheap labour
  -> 1954 ‘operation wetback’ (illegal migrants who swam across the Rio grande were referred to as wetbacks) deported many Hispanic nationals, both legal and illegal
  -> 1970s Mexicans allow to move back and forth freely
  -> 2006, number of illegal migrants in the US rose from 4 million to 12 million (more than half were Mexican)
  -> 2006 saw another wave of federal legislation that increase the size of the US border patrol by 50% and planned high security fencing along 1/3 of the frontiers length

Question 35

Problems with interdependence: interdependence driving inequality (HDI)

Answer 35

• HDI takes into account: GNI, adult literacy rate % and life expectancy -> results in a country with a score between 0-1
• measuring inequality within country’s = the gini index: creates a score between 0 and 1
  > <0.2 represents perfect income equality
  > 0.2 - 0.3 relative equality
  > 0.3 - 0.4 adequate equality
  > 0.4 - 0.5 big income gap
  > above 0.5 represents severe income gap

Question 36

Trade patterns and market access

Answer 36

• tariffs: tariffs are used to restrict imports. Simply put, they increase the price of goods and services purchased from another country, making them less attractive to domestic consumers
• import quotas: a physical limit on the quantity of goods that can be imported into the country
• subsidies: grants/allowances usually awarded to domestic producers to reduce their costs to make them more competitive against importers
• embargoes: partial or complete ban of trade and commerce with a particular country
• voluntary export restraints: diplomatic strategy offered by the exporting country to appease the importing country and deter it from opposing trade barriers
• trade restrictions: other import restrictions may be based on technical or regulatory obstacles such as the quality standards of goods being imported, or how they are produced, e.g. the EU attempt to put restrictions on the import of goods knowingly produced using child labour
• import licence: a licence by a national government authorising the importation of goods from a specific source

Question 37

Volume in global export of trade of goods over time

Answer 37

• 1970 = globalisation, export volume of world trade in goods was $318.18 bn exponentially grew to $16149.3bn in 2008
• 2009 = anomaly of decrease to $12556.2bn, this is due to global financial crisis
• continued to increase after until 2014 where there was a small contraction followed by peak in 2018-> 2018 peak of $19453.36bn

Question 38

The trend in the volume and value of trade in different regions

Answer 38

• trend: 1995 -> the developed countries had a market share of 69%. Of the worlds exports to 55% in 2010. Therefore developed countries have lost some of their market y 14%. From 1995 in developing countries the trend is that in 1995 they had a market share of 28% to 41% in 2010. Therefore developing countries market share had increased by 13%. The overall trend suggests that the developed countries are losing market share whereas the developing countries are gaining

Question 39

Trading relationships

Answer 39

• trans-pacific partnership (TPP)
• transatlantic trade and investment partnership (TTIP)
• G7
• G20
• Mercosur
• pacific alliance

Question 40

Trans pacific relations : TPP and TTIP

Answer 40

• TPP is a trade agreement between a small group of pacific rim countries (Brunei, Chile, New Zealand and Singapore) formed in 2005. 2008: US speculation, Australia, Vietnam and Peru joined. 2009: US talks continued, Canada, Japan, Malaysia and Mexico joined making number 12. 2016: US join -> 2017 Trump withdraws US
• criticised: free trade agreements lead to income inequality in high wage countries. It encourages the rich to get richer to the expense of the poor as they promote cheaper goods from low wage countries. So,e do,exotic job losses. Partnership covered 40% overall value of global export market with 30% going to USA
• Barack Obama in favour of agreeing to TTP: argued reduced prices for consumers, boosted US exports and spurred cross border investment. Ask all countries involved more efficient with more consistent rules and market orientated reforms in developing countries
• why did trump withdraw from negotiations: would consider rejoining with different structure of deal in favour of US

Question 41

TTIP - transatlantic trade and investment partnership

Answer 41

-> proposed trade deal between EU and US to boost trade and economic growth
-> lack of transparency and worries that reduced legislation in food safety and banking benefit corporations complaints = secrecy in negotiations lowering of standards and concerns of NHS impact t in UK

Question 42

G7

Answer 42

• high net national wealth and high human development index is necessary to be a member
  -> an informal grouping set up in 1975, of advanced democracies that meet annually to coordinate global economic policy and address other transnational issues
• includes: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, US, UK

Question 43

G20

Answer 43

• an international forum for governments and central banks of 20 major economies - included G7 countries and EU as a single member
  -> established to give voice to major developing countries (including BRICS) that felt the WTO were not fully benefiting

Question 44

Mercosur

Answer 44

• a trade bloc formed in 1991: Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay (Venezuela is suspended)
• operates as a custom union and aims to create a continent wide free trade area.
• internal disputes have occurred -> Brazil car industry led to Argentina imposing tariffs on steel imports. Smaller members (Paraguay) want to meet trade deals externally which is not allowed
• Brazil id unable to pursue unilateral trade deals due to the rules which is part of why they attempted free trade agreement with EU failed

Question 45

Pacific alliance

Answer 45

• a regional trade bloc formed in 2011 including Chile, Peru, Columbus and Mexico
• differs to Mercosur as it has open us to bilateral agreements and focuses on Asia and US as main markers
• countries are also part of TTP agreement. Although young, has experienced fast growth in economies and trade volume -> may merge with Mercosur
• strong outward looking economy go expand to Costa Rica and Asia markets
• contracts with the protectionism and political disputes either Mercosur

Question 46

Fair trade

Answer 46

• a social movement to try and achieve better trading conditions and promote sustainability. Commodities include coffee, tea, cocoa, fruit and bananas
• fair trade sets standards: for farmers and workers the standards include protection of workers’ rights and the environment, for companies they include the payment of the fair trade premium to invest in business or community projects of the community’s choice
• fair trade certifies products and ingredients: fair trade independently check that their standards have been met by the farmers, workers and companies. This allows ethical consumers to recognise the goods they are buying are fair trade

Question 47

How effective is fairtrade

Answer 47

• ✅
  > has contributed to empowering and giving voice to small producers who previously had very little bargaining power
  > an important part of this extra income received by fairtrade producers is invested in education and other activities which promote productivity and sustainability
  > majority of producers are satisfied with fairtrade systems -> allowing areas to improve dramatically with minimum wages
• ❌
  > does not always ensure better wages. For instance, a report by the university of London, about fairtrade in Uganda and Ethiopia found that wages in fairtrade certified markets were very low. The report states that there was inadequate monitoring of pay and conditions by certification schemes
  > it is difficult to make sure that abusive labour practices are not reintroduced after certifications are expired or abandoned
  > firms may use it for wrong reasons -> regain reputation (as a marketing tool)

Question 48

TNC’s

Answer 48

• a large oraganisatioj that operates in several countries
• usually has its HQ in HIC, usually in a global such as London, New York or Beijing
• they will jibe several production plants across the world

Question 49

Outsourcing

Answer 49

• The act of getting alternative goods and services from other goods and services from other cheaper locations rather than locally
• it may also involve devolving manufacturing processes Tina third party (sub-contracting)

Question 50

Positives of TNC’s

Answer 50

• TNC’s invest in the economics of developing countries and can help to raise living standards
• although TNC’s pay less than to workers in host countries than they would in their county, they generally pay between 10% and 100% more than local labour rates
• TNC’s teach local people new skills, which they can use in other jobs or can pose onto their children
• positive multiplier effect usually means that the presence of TNC’s in a country improves roads, airports and services

Question 51

Negatives of TNC’s

Answer 51

• outsourcing means that TNCs exploit cheap labour. As a result local workers are paid badly
• profits don’t generally remain within the country in which goods are manufactured
• because they are TNC’s they can avoid paying full taxes in the countries where they operate. This affects the services governments are able to provided for local people - in this way TNC’s do little to help LED’s develop
• worker exploitation -> many workers work more than 100 hours a week or 65p a day

Question 52

The global commons

Answer 52

• parts of the planet that fall outside jurisdictions and to which all nations have access. They include resources shared by all but not controlled by any single nation
• international law defines four global commons:
  > the high seas (including the deep sea bed)
  > the atmosphere
  > Antarctica
  > outer space

Question 53

Why do the global commons need governing

Answer 53

• plastics: 1 trillion pieces of pollutants floating in worlds oceans, additions 8 mil tonnes being added per year -> ocean currents circulate in a large rotating pattern
• anthropogenic: release GHG’s which are continuing to drive the processes of climate change
• climate regulation: snow and ice jams am albedo of 90% meaning 13.8 million km2 of ice reflects much of the suns energy in the high southern altitudes back into space
• oceans: prove $3 trillion of goods/services per year, contributes to economic growth due to ferried fish based diet
• weather events: millions of people across the wild live in areas prone to tropical storms
• overfishing: when fish are caught at a faster rate then they can reproduce + grow to full maturity

Question 54

Principle of common heritage

Answer 54

• it represents the notion that certain global commons or elements regarded as beneficial to humanity as a whole should be unilaterally exploited by individual states of their nationals, nor by corporations or other entities, but rather, should be exploited under some sort of international arrangement or regime for the benefit of mankind as a whole

Question 55

The trade by of the commons

Answer 55

• first described by biologist garrett Hardin in 1968, describes how shared environment resources are overused and eventually depleted
• they compared shared resources shared resources to a common grazing pasture, in this scenario, everyone with rights to the pasture grazes as many animals as possible, acting in the self interest for the greatest short-term personal gain. Eventually, they use up all the grass in the pasture; the shared resource is depleted

Question 56

Ablation

Answer 56

The opposite of accumulation; refers to all processes that remove snow, ice, or water from s glacier or snowfield: the melting of snow/evaporation/or ice that runs off the glacier/calving/erosive removal by wind. Very few areas are free from ice. The areas that are, are called nunataks

Question 57

Nunataks

Answer 57

An exposed, often rocky element of a ridge, mountain, or peak not covered with ice or snow within (or at the edge of) an ice field or glacier. They are also called glacial islands