Key Figures Flashcards
Innate schemas form the building blocks of cognition
Schemas proliferate to produce cognitive development.
Adaptation of old schemata takes place through two processes
Mechanisms of change:
Assimilation
Accommodation
Equilibration
Piaget
Temperment
Behaviorally inhibited children
- Relatively stable trait but environment can affect over the long term
Kagan
attachment
psychodynamic literature of children in orphanges
Hard wired to seek out attachment
(monkey, cloth mother experiment)
Harlow
early attachment security influences later social relations due to development of INTERNAL WORKING MODELS
Attachment is pre-wired (seek security from early caretakers)
Bowlby
individual differences in the quality of the infant’s attachment to its caregiver using the Strange Situation.
Investigations using the Strange Situation have yielded evidence of distinct patterns of attachment.
Ainsworth
Psychosocial Stages
adolescence and identity formation
Erikson
analysed Erikson’s work on identify formation and argued that there are four identity statuses, based on o Crisis (choosing among options) o Commitment (personal investment)
Marcia
Parenting Styles
· Authoritarian
· Permissive
· Authoritative
Baumrind
o Reasoning as opposed to behavior
To assess stage of moral development: · Present individual with dilemmas and ask them how they would behave and why? · Would you steal a drug to help your partner dying of cancer? · From the why comes the estimate of the individual’s stage of development
Kohlberg
Criticism of moral reasoning
-females base on ethic of care not justice
Gilligan
Motivation, principal theories of what drives.
Drives
o Internal states that arise in response to a disequilibrium
· Homeostasis o Constancy or equilibrium and balance o When homeostasis is disrupted, the organism seeks tension reduction
Hull
· Instincts
o Preprogrammed tendencies
o Readily seen in non-human animals
o Might also be important for humans
Tension
Psychoanalysis
• Importance of unconscious drives, battle between ego and id and superego, use of defense mechanisms (esp Repression).
• Psychological problems stem from fixation during psychosexual stages of childhood development.
• Can be used to treat any psychological issues but has predominantly been used to treat hysteria, and personality disorders (e.g., borderline, narcissistic)
Goals of Psychoanalysis
• Catharsis – Emotional Release
• To resolve unconscious conflicts.
• In psychoanalysis this is done by increasing the individual’s insight into their unconscious drives (and other contents of the id), which will allow them to have greater control of themselves through ego processes
1) Personality
2) Clinical/abnormal psychology
• comprehensive theory of personality
• Argued that human thought, feelings & behaviour were explainable,
• structure of personality - invented the theoretical constructs of id, ego and superego.
• comprehensive approach to therapy
• development of personality - oral, anal, phallic stages
Levels of Awareness: Unconscious Motivation
Freud
ocial-learning theory
• Expectancy Value Theory
• Learning theory can be applied to understand human social behaviour
Expectancy Value Theory
Behaviour is a function of the expectations people have
about the outcomes of their behaviour (outcome expectancy)
and the importance they place on those outcomes.
B = f(E,V)
locas of control
Individuals differ in terms of whether they perceive outcomes to be the result of factors:
Internal to the person
o External to the person
Rotter
Attributions
o Dispositional forces
o Situational forces
· Judgments about the causes of outcomes he way that people attribute a cause or explanation to an unpleasant event. o Globality/specificity o Stability/instability
Internality/externality
Heider
o Learned helplessness
o Explanatory style
o Optimism versus Pessimism
Seligman
Hierarchy of Needs
1. physiological needs 2. safety needs 3. social needs (attachment) 4. esteem needs 5. self-actualisation needs
Maslow
Motivations For Personal Achievement
o Basic need to strive for achievement of goals o Blend of psychodynamic and trait concepts o Heavily influenced by Jung and Freud o “Personology” o Needs may be manifest or latent. o 12 viscerogenic (primary) needs o 27 psychogenic (secondary) needs
Murray
· Used TAT to assess individual differences in nAch
· High nAch is the basis for an entrepreneurial society
· _____ and colleagues concentrated initially on nAch
· assessed principally with the TAT but also with other fantasy material (children’s books, depictions on pottery)
· examined antecedents and consequences
· subsequently examined other motive patterns
· (nPower, nAff)
nAch can be taught – that it is socially prescribed rather than innate
McCelland
Motivations For Personal Achievement
The Assessment of Latent Needs
· Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Morgan
first to use photographs to study emotion
Believed that
- emotions were product of evolution
- Like physical structures, emotions that maximised chances of survival passed on to offspring.
- Specific co-ordinated modes of operation of human brain serving specfic adaptive purpose
- Inherited specialised mental states designed to deal with recurring situations in the world
- Claim of universality of emotions
Darwin
micro facial expressions
Demonstrate universality of expressions
Ekman
· Instincts
Fear assessed based on bodily messages (heart racing)
& Lange
“A peripheral feedback theory of emotion, stating that an eliciting stimulus triggers a behavourial response that sends different sensory and motor feedback to the brain and creates a specific emotion”
emotion stems from bodily feedback. experience of emotion results from perception of arousal
James
&Bard
“A theory stating that an emotional stimulus produces two co-occuring reactions - arousal and experience of emotion - that do not cause each other”
- Centralist - Visceral activity (actions of ANS) irrelevent - Brain intereceds between stimulation and response - Separate signals sent for feeling and expressiveness - Emotion stimulus produces two concurrent reactions ○ Arousal and experience of emotion - Do not cause each other - Bodily arousal in the sympathetic nervous system and subjective experience via cortex - Independence between bodily and psychological responses
Cannon
& schachter
Cognitive appraisal theory
- Experience of emotion the joint effect of physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal, both parts necessary for emotion to occur. They determine how an ambiguous inner state will be labelled - Both are appraised at the same time according to situational cues and context factors. - Emotional experience results from interaction of the level of arousal and nature of appraisal - Arousal is general - Appraise arousal in effort to discover what the feeling is, what emotional label best fits - What reaction means in the setting that its being experienced - Not just within person but also because of whats happening in the environment - Past experiences link emotions to situations, often unconscious Example of dangerous bridge crossing and woman story writing. Misattribution of source of arousal Appraisal is important for emotional experience but not be all and end all. Some circumstances look to environment to try and interpret feelings. Some under innate links from evolution
SOLO RESEARCH:
has demonstrated a relationship between hassles & health problems
Daily hassles may be balanced out by positive experiences
STRESS
a stressful situation is one that a person regards as threatening and possibly exceeding his or her resources
- is it a threat, can i cope?
Lazarus
effects of continued severe stress on the body-
- All stressors call for adaptation, restore balance - homeostasis - GAS - Alarm reaction, prepares body for activity - Resistence - Exhuastion
Immune system comprismised by hormones that function in short term responses
The way in which stressful situation are appraised has an impact on physiological response
studies on rats
Seyle
• Appraisal of Stress
• Cognitive appraisal
○ primary appraisal
○ secondary appraisal
COPING
* Social Support: Buffer Against Stress * Having a network of family or friends who provide strong, social attachments * Being able to exchange helpful resources among family or friends * Feeling that we have supportive relationships * Having a network of family or friends who provide strong, social attachments * Being able to exchange helpful resources among family or friends * Feeling that we have supportive relationships
Lazarus and Folkman
“Personality is a dynamic organization, inside the person, of psychophysical systems that create the person’s characteristic patterns of behavior, thoughts and feelings”
lexical hypothesis
• Social categorisation
• Ingroup vs outgroups
○ Ingroup bias vs outgroup derogation
○ The isms are characterised by lots of negativity
the nature of prejudice
- “Prejudice (unless deeply rooted in the character structure of the individual) may be reduced by equal status contact between majority and minority groups in the pursuit of common goals. The effect is greatly enhanced if the contact is sanctioned by institutional supports (ie by law custom or local atmosphere) and provided it is of the sort that leads to the perception of common interests and common humanity between members of the two groups.
Contact Hypothesis
• Contact with other group might not always help
• “… personal interaction… shared goals.” (p. 534)
Allport
factor analysis.
particular statistical technique
howed 16 factors (trait) sufficient to describe people.
Found 16 personality factors (called the 16PF)
17,953 adjectival descriptions of human action
reduced these further to 160• Used these 160 terms as the basis of a 20 year project to identify the basic personality traits
• Worked with large samples of everyday people.
• Asked to rates others they knew well on dimensions
formed from the trait term
Cattel
Five Factor Model
Extraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness Neuroticism Openness to experience
Costa & McCrae
Big Two
• Extraversion, Neuroticism
There are three primary and independent personality dimensions:
• extraversion-introversion(E),
• neuroticism-stability (N)
• psychoticism-normality (P)
These dimensions have a substantial genetic basis that is
expressed in terms of functional differences in the brain
Although strongly based in biological approach, also often included under the Trait approach – focuses on causal mechanisms
Hierarchal Organisation of Personality
Eysenck
split with Freud 1913)
• Disagreed with Freud’s emphasis on the sex drive
• Believed that the collective unconscious was the driving force in personality development
○ Collective unconscious consists of ancient memory traces and symbols that are passed on by birth and shared by all people in all cultures
Motivations For Personal Achievement
Henry Murray
o Heavily influenced by ____ and Freud
Jung
Hierachy of Needs.
1. physiological needs 2. safety needs 3. social needs (attachment) 4. esteem needs 5. self-actualisation needs
• Self-actualisation and peak experiences
Maslow
• Operant conditioning
Reward (reinforcement): Anything that increases behaviour Punishment: Anything that decreases behaviour
Skinner
observational learning
Social learning theory
Social Reinforcement: Praise, attention, approval, and/or affection from others
Vicarious learning
Modelling: Desire to act like an admired person
Self-efficacy
Reciprocal Determinism
Bandura
Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory
• proposes individual differences in sensitivity to reward and punishment
• combination of biological, trait and behavioural theory
increasingly used in the study of psychopathology
Behavioural Approach System
Fight flight freeze system
Behavioural Inhibition System
Gray
self’ theory
• on becoming a fully functioning person
Client-Centered Therapy
• Focusing on promoting personal growth (fully functioning person)
• Psychological problems caused by incongruence between self-concept and reality and lack of self-acceptance due to conditional positive regard.
Can be used to treat all psychological disorders. However appears to be most useful for higher functioning clients seeking personal growth.
Rogers
seminal work
Electric shock.
obedience to authority
Milgram
Reversing prejudice
Prejudice is a social phenomenon, not an individual one!
Robber’s Cave expt.
What is it about the environment overrides individual differences to an extent
Information - wanting to be correct
We don’t like ambiguity, we look to other people
Autokinetic Effect
estimates converging
Sherif
Normative conformity
size of lines
going along for wanting to be liked.
social support reduced conformity
Asch
tanford Prison Experiment (SPE)
• The power of roles and social identity
• The power of the group
Zimbardo
