Key Essential Oils

Question 1

Essential Oils that Counteract Aggression

Answer 1

• cedarwood
• jasmine
• sandalwood
• ylang ylang

Question 2

Essential oils that support confidence

Answer 2

• allspice
• basil
• blue cypress
• jasmine
• marjoram
• neroli
• petigrain
• rose
• rosemary
• vanilla

Question 3

Essential Oils that Counteract Anger

Answer 3

• German chamomile
• geraniu
• jasmine
• lavender
• Roman chamomile
• vanilla
• ylang-ylang

Question 4

Essential oils that counteract anxiousness

Answer 4

• benzoin
• bergamot
• clary sage
• geranium
• German chamomile
• grapefruit
• juniper
• lavender
• mandarin
• orange
• patchouli
• rose
• sandalwood

Question 5

Essential oils that stabilize emotions

Answer 5

• bergamot
• eucalyptus
• geranium
• lavender
• Roman chamomile
• sandalwood

Question 6

Essential oils that counteract boredom/apathy

Answer 6

• jasmine
• juniper
• peppermint
• rosemary

Question 7

Essential oils that are calming/soothing

Answer 7

• chamomile
• coriander
• hyssop
• lavender
• lemongrass
• sandalwood

Question 8

Essential oils that support centering/focusing

Answer 8

• Atlas cedar
• cedarwood
• coriander
• frankincense
• cinnamon leaf
• myrrh
• sandalwood

Question 9

Essential oils that counteract emotional stress

Answer 9

• basil
• benzoin
• bergamot
• fennel
• juniper
• lavender
• myrrh
• rose
• peppermint
• sandalwood
• ylang-ylang

Question 10

Essential oils that support euphoria

Answer 10

• anise
• clary sage

Question 11

Essential oils that counteract fear

Answer 11

• lavender
• marjoram
• myrrh
• Roman chamomile
• neroli
• rose otto
• sandalwood
• thyme
• ylang ylang

Question 12

Essential oils that counteract greif

Answer 12

• benzoin
• clary sage
• cypress
• fennel seed
• Roman chamomile
• rose
• sage
• ylang ylang

Question 13

Essential oils that counteract impatience

Answer 13

• geranium
• myrrh
• rose

Question 14

Essential oils that invigorate/energize

Answer 14

• basil
• bay
• cardamom
• cinnamon
• eucalyptus
• lemongrass
• rosemary

Question 15

Essential oils that counteract irritability

Answer 15

• fennel
• lavender
• orange
• Roman chamomile

Question 16

Essential oils that support clarity

Answer 16

• basil
• clary sage
• clove bud
• juniper
• hyssop
• peppermint
• rosemary

Question 17

Essential oils that ease nightmares

Answer 17

• jasmine
• lavender
• patchouli
• rosemary
• thyme
• ylang ylang

Question 18

Essential oils that support relaxation

Answer 18

• anise
• German chamomile
• lemon eucalyptus
• lavender

Question 19

Essential oils that stimulate

Answer 19

• bay
• black pepper
• clove
• fennel
• ginger
• peppermint

Question 20

Essential oils that support sensuality

Answer 20

• anise
• cinnamon
• ginger
• jasmine
• rose
• vanilla
• ylang-ylang

Question 21

Essential oils that counteract sorrow

Answer 21

• bergamot
• clary sage
• grapefruit
• orange
• rose

Question 22

Essential oils that strengthen/fortify

Answer 22

• cedarwood
• frankincense
• myrrh
• tea tree

Question 23

Essential oils that uplift

Answer 23

• allspice
• basil
• balsam fir
• clary sage
• clove bud
• lemon
• orange

Question 24

Lavender

Answer 24

• Lavender Lavandula angustifolia Mill.– Lamiaceae (mint) Family
• Synonyms: Lavandula officinalis, Lavandula vera, English lavender, common lavender
• Part used: New growth, leaf, flower and stem
• Harvest Season: Early- to mid-summer
• Botanical Description: Lavender is a small evergreen woody shrub, 2-3 feet in height. It is native to the Mediterranean Region. It tolerates heat well, but is only consistently hardy to Zone 5. There are over two dozen species of lavender, but only one other species and one hybrid are commonly distilled for their oils—spike lavender (L. latifolia) and lavandin (L. x. intermedia).
• Origin: Largest supplier is the Ukraine, followed by Bulgaria, southern Europe, North Africa and China.
• Growing Conditions: Lavender prefers a well-drained soil with full sun and average fertility.
• Extraction Method: The oil is steam distilled.
• Yield: 1 to 3%
• Oil Characteristics: The oil is clear to pale yellow in color, light and almost watery in texture, and has an odor both herbaceous and floral with no hint of camphor.
• Aroma Profile: Top Note: sweet, fruity with a herbaceous, refreshing, balsamic-woody undertone.Middle Note: sweet, floral-herbaceous, refreshing, pleasant, with balsamic-woody undertone. Dry-out: clean, floral, herbaceous.
• Major Constituents: Linalyl acetate, linalool, cis- and trans-β-ocimene, terpinen-4-ol, lavandulol, lavandulyl acetate, 1,8-cineole, limonene, camphor.
• History: Lavender’s name is derived from the Roman word, ‘lavera’, which means to wash. The term lavatory is derived from Lavender. The plant and the oil have a long history of use, and most famous herbals mention the plant and/or the oil.
  
  • It became somewhat famous as the oil that started Rene Gattefosse on his journey to learn everything about essential oils after he burned his hand in his laboratory and healed the wound with Lavender.
  • It is by far the most popular oil in North America and accounts for approximately 25% of all individual essential oils sales. It is also popular in multitudes of formulas for health, beauty and cleaning purposes.
• Aromatherapy Benefits: Balancing, soothing, normalizing, clarifying, calming and relaxing. In the words of Kathi Keville and Mindy Green, “When in doubt, use lavender.”
• Clinical Studies: Like many oils lavender has been shown to inhibit certain microbes. Several studies have proven its anti-inflammatory action (1), and it has a long history of use in soothing burns. In controlled studies, it has been shown to reduce stress, aid with insomnia due to anxiety, and to be beneficial in the treatment of headaches. It has also been shown to reduce the symptoms associated with insect bites and stings.
• Cosmetic Uses: Lavender blends well with other oils, including clary sage, geranium, citrus oils, palmarosa, German and Roman chamomile and many others. It can be used in a variety of products including bath salts, soaps, lotions, shampoos, body mists, body scrubs and so much more.
• Safety: Lavender is non-toxic, non-irritating and non-sensitizing. It is one of the safest oils there is to use.
• Quality Issues: Lavender is one of the most adulterated oils in North America. It is commonly adulterated with lavandin, a hybrid lavender with a significant amount of camphor and cineole, which give it distinctly different properties. Lavandin is more productive and cheaper than lavender, making adulteration profitable. Lavender is also adulterated with synthetic compounds, most notably linalyl acetate and linalool. This gives the lavender a ‘stronger’ top note and many consumers thus believe they are getting a better quality oil.
  
  • Detection of adulteration in lavender is quite easily done with gas chromatography. Aura Cacia has found over 50% of all lavender sold in natural product store to be adulterated.
• Regulatory Status: GRAS 182.20
• Tim’s Notes: Lavender is the most popular oil in North America. It is very safe to use, easy to use, beneficial in so many ways and very affordable. It is one, if not the, most studied oil in the world today.
• People flock to Southern France each July to see the lavender or lavandin fields (80-90% of the “lavender” grown in France is lavandin) in bloom. In the U.S., lavender is being cultivated on a small scale in several areas of the West, but the claim of being the “Lavender Capitol” of the U.S. must surely go to Sequim, Washington. Each July they hold a festival with nearly 40,000 people in attendance.

Question 25

Tea Tree

Answer 25

• Tea Tree Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden & Betche) Cheel – Myrtaceae (myrtle) Family
• Synonyms: Ti-tree, ti-trol, narrow-leaved paperbark tea, melasol
• Parts Used: Leaves and branch tips
• Harvest Season: Throughout the growing season.
• Botanical Description: Tea tree is a small tree growing up to 25 feet in height in its native habitat. It has distinctive papery bark. The leaves are narrow and arranged in three’s along the stem. The flowers are usually creamy-white though sometimes yellow-tinted. The seed is a small woody capsule which germinates relatively poorly.
  
  • There are over 200 species of Melaleuca that grow mainly in Australia, with a few growing in Southeast Asia. Two other species that are distilled for their oils are Melaleuca cajuputi and Melaleuca quinquenervia.
• Origin: All tea tree oil comes from eastern Australia. It was first distilled in 1924 and the first plantation was planted in 1975.
• Growing Conditions: Tea tree prefers a wet, swampy soil. It can be cultivated in a variety of conditions however, and on plantations it grows with or without irrigation (though irrigation usually yields more oil). Oil content varies tremendously, even from day to day. Adequate moisture is a factor, but other unknown factors seem to affect the oil content as well. The plant is frost-sensitive.
  
  • To harvest, the tree is cut down, but within 18 months it is ready to harvest again because the stump sprouts and grows quickly.
• Extraction Method: Steam distillation of the leaves and twigs.
• Yield: Varies tremendously from 1-4% with an average closer to 1%.
• Oil Characteristics: The oil is clear, colorless to pale yellow. It has a spicy, medicinal aroma.
• Aroma Profile: Top Note: strong, powerful, camphoraceous-cineolic, oily Middle Note: diffusive, mace-like Dry-out: weak, dry, mace-like
• Major Constituents: Terpinen-4-ol (>30%), 1,8-cineole (1 to 15%), α-pinene (6%), p-cymene, limonene, α-terpinene, α-terpineol, aromadendrene, γ-terpineol, sabinene, γ-terpineol, δ-cadinene.
• History: The aborigines of Australia used the leaves for inhalation and to make a tea to relieve colds and headaches. The name tea tree comes from Captain Cook, who in 1777 brewed the tea to prevent scurvy.
  
  • It was first distilled in 1924 and was used extensively in World War II. It was first cultivated in 1975, and today virtually all of the tea tree oil comes from plantations. It is the second best selling oil in North America.
• Aromatherapy Benefits: Purifying, uplifting, cleansing. It is generally a safe oil to apply to the skin, and its anti-microbial action is used for many purposes. It is well known as a gargle, used in numerous facial formulas and in various applications to minor scraps and cuts.
• Clinical Studies: Tea tree is one of the most studied oils in the world. It has been shown in numerous studies to be anti-bacterial and anti-fungal (1,2,3).
  
  • It has clearly been shown to inhibit candida and thus it has potential in the topical treatment of superficial candida infections (2).
  • The oil has also shown promise in toenail fungus and was shown in one trial to be as effective as clotrimazole (1).
• Cosmetic Uses: Tea tree is used in a variety of skin care products, but almost exclusively for its antimicrobial actions. It blends well with spicy oils like nutmeg, clove, rosemary, marjoram and thyme as well as woody oils like cedarwood and pine. Like many oils, it seems to blend well with lavender.
• Safety: Tea tree oil is considered non-toxic and non-irritating. While also considered non-sensitizing, some individuals do seem to be sensitive to it. Researchers have found that one component of the oil, para-cymene, increases dramatically as the oil oxidizes. This occurs much more rapidly when the oil was stored in clear bottles. In dark bottles the content of para-cymene did not change during the trial.
  
  • Para-cymene is a known skin irritant and may account for the skin sensitively experienced by some people, especially if using oxidized oil. For this reason, the oil should stored in an air-tight bottle away from light and heat.
• Quality Issues: Tea tree is rarely adulterated, though there is a lot of variation in constituents of the oil due to several environmental factors.
• Regulatory Status: GRAS 182.20
• Tim’s Notes: Tea tree is a safe and easy to use oil. It is effective against a wide variety of conditions and thus is one of the top oils in my first aid kit.
  
  • I once used the oil on an airplane to disinfect my air space and the airplane attendant suddenly shouted, ‘what’s that, something’s wrong, what’s that smell?’ I immediately informed her that it was just little old me and that nothing was wrong. When she smelled the bottle she immediately said, ‘yuck’. My suggestion would be not to use it on a plane but stick with a more common oil like lavender.
  • It is perhaps the only oil that is available today in suppositories.

Question 26

Peppermint

Answer 26

• Peppermint Mentha x. piperita L. – Lamiaceae (mint) Family
• Synonyms: Balm mint
• Part Used: Aerial parts of the plant.
• Harvest Season: Peppermint is harvested when the plant is in flower.
• Botanical Description: An herbaceous creeping plant, it can grow up to 30 inches in height. It is a sterile hybrid of spearmint (M. spicata) and water mint (M. aquatica). There are over 20 named cultivars, Black Mitcham being one of the best known.
  
  • Peppermint has dark green leaves and a stem that can be green to dark brown. It has vibrant pinkish-mauve flowers arranged in a long conical spike. The plant spreads quickly via runners.
• Origin: Crossing of the two parent species occurred in the wild, with the actual origin uncertain. It has naturalized in many parts of the world, including North America.
  
  • The United States is the largest supplier of peppermint, with much of the production occurring in the Northwest. It is also cultivated in England, France, Italy, Argentina, India, China and Egypt.
• Growing Conditions: Peppermint loves a rich soil with adequate moisture. It is propagated from cuttings, as it rarely produces viable seed.
• Extraction Method: Steam distillation of the flowering plant.
• Yield: 0.3 to 0.7%.
• Oil Characteristics: The oil is pale yellow, though it becomes near clear when redistilled. It has a strong, fresh, grassy-minty aroma that is more complex than the menthol-dominated aroma of redistilled peppermint oil.
• Aroma Profile: Top Note: very fresh, grassy, buttery Middle Note: strong, grassy-minty, deep with a balsamic-sweet undertone Dry-out: sweet, clean
• Major Constituents: Menthol (29 to 50%), menthone (16 to 25%), menthyl acetate (5%), isomenthone, menthofuran, piperitone.
• History: Mints have been used as food and medicine for centuries. Peppermint was introduced in the U.S. in the early 1800s. In 1879 the British Medical Journal noted that menthol relieves headaches and neuralgia. This created the scented candle rage. The name Mentha comes from the Greek mythological nymph, Minthe, who was seduced by Pluto and then trod into the ground by his jealous wife. Pluto turned her into an herb and we have appreciated his actions ever since.
  
  • Menthol is used in many products and is one of the key ingredients in Listerine that makes it antimicrobial and good for gargling.
• Aromatherapy Benefits: Cooling, vitalizing, refreshing.
  
  • Peppermint is used in products like toothpaste since it leaves a very potent, fresh, minty taste along with a cooling and refreshing sensation. It is very invigorating when applied to the skin, creating a warm sensation at first followed by a cold feeling as it constricts the blood vessels.
  • It is considered very soothing to the stomach when inhaled and is often smelled for motion sickness.
• Clinical Studies: Peppermint has been studied for its spasmolytic action, usefulness in reducing spasms related to irritable bowel syndrome, and in cases where invasive procedures might induce a spasm reaction (1).
  
  • It has been shown that enteric-coated capsules of peppermint oil can reduce bacteria growth in the intestines, which also benefits symptoms of Irritable Bowel Syndrome (2).
  • In a recent study on the Herpes virus, the oil was found to be nearly 100% effective at preventing the virus from spreading to nearby cells, thus reducing the severity of an outbreak (3).
  • The German Commission E Monographs recommend the oil for obstructions of the bile duct, gall bladder inflammations and liver damage (4).
• Cosmetic Uses: Peppermint oil scents a wide variety of cosmetic products, from oral hygiene products to soaps, shampoos, lotions and perfumes.
  
  • The oil blends well with lavender, rosemary, lemon eucalyptus, tea tree, lemon and orange.
• Safety: The oil is non-toxic and generally non-irritating. It is a mild skin irritant and allergen for some people. The German Commission E Monograph does not recommend facial application to young children. It is contraindicated during pregnancy.
• Quality Issues: May be spiked with synthetic menthol or adulterated with spearmint or cornmint oil which has higher menthol content, but also much more toxic pulegone. Peppermint oil is sometimes redistilled. This gives it a stronger, menthol aroma and flavor that is preferred for flavoring purposes, but the redistilled oil is not recommended for aromatherapy use because it is not a complete oil.
• Regulatory Status: GRAS 182.20
• Tim’s Notes:
  
  • I like to place a drop or two of the oil on my socks before putting on my shoes. This will cause a pronounced invigorating action that keeps the feet “awake” all day.
  • When fatigued, I like to spray a water/peppermint blend on my face (eyes closed). I often do this before driving home late at night, sometimes also mixing in rosemary oil.
  • It’s hard to forget the first time you use too much peppermint soap in the shower. It is an interesting sensation to say the least.
  • For motion sickness, I rely on peppermint and ginger. I eat ginger while drinking peppermint tea and sniffing the oil constantly.

Question 27

Eucalyptus

Answer 27

• Eucalyptus globulus Labill. – Myrtaceae (myrtle) Family
• Synonyms: Blue gum, Tasmanian blue gum
• Parts Used: Leaves on mature trees
• Harvest Season: Usually harvested when the tree is felled for lumber or firewood. The essential oil content is highest in warm weather.
• Botanical Description: There are over 700 species of eucalyptus with all but a handful native to Australia. A few species grow in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the Philippines. No species are native to New Zealand. It readily hybridizes and there are numerous chemotypes of various species. Only five or six species are grown commercially for distillation of their oils.
  
  • The mature tree can reach over 200 feet in height. The leaves are a dark glossy green, lance-shaped and very long. The flowers are white, smell great, and bees love them. The fruit is unique, semi hard, with an essential oil that is different from the leaf oil.
• Origin: Eucalyptus is grown in many parts of the world including Spain, Portugal, Brazil, South Africa and Australia. China is presently the largest supplier of the oil.
• Growing Conditions: It requires a warm climate but will tolerate some frost (zones 8-10). It requires a well-drained soil of average to good fertility. In the U.S., it is commonly grown in California.
• Extraction Method: Steam distillation of the partially dried leaves.
• Yield: 1.5 to 3.5%
• Oil Characteristics: The oil is very high in 1,8-cineole (eucalyuptol) and has a strong camphor-like odor. The top note dominates and is very powerful. Color is clear to pale yellow with a watery body.
• Aroma Profile: Top Note: fresh, powerful, camphoraceous Middle Note: diffusive, penetrating Dry-out: weak, camphoraceous
• Major Constituents: 1,8-cineole (50 to 70%), α-pinene (10 to 25%), p-cymene, limonene.
• History: The tree has long been harvested for its dense, hard wood and its leaves, which are used in folk medicine. The oil was first distilled soon after the Europeans settled in Australia in 1788. Australia dominated the production of oil until the 20th Century, when other countries began producing the oil.
  
  • The honey of some species of eucalyptus is considered amongst the best in the world.
  • In California, the tree was extensively planted in the hopes that it would make a great lumber tree, but although it thrived in California, the wood tended to split and was useless as lumber.
• Aromatherapy Benefits: Purifying, invigorating, cooling and astringent.
• Clinical Studies: There is some evidence to show that eucalyptus has some antimicrobial action, specifically against Streptococcus (1).
  
  • It also seems to possess some anti-inflammatory and analgesic actions (2).
  • The main use of eucalyptus is to improve respiratory function, and there are many references to this action (3).
• Cosmetic Uses: The strong aroma is found in many soaps, cleaning products and detergents but it is not used in perfumery. It is used in small amounts in oily skin preparation and is often an ingredient in chest rubs, salves and liniments.
  
  • It blends well with lavender, chamomile (German and Roman), rosemary, thyme, pine, cypress and citrus.
• Safety: The oil is considered non-toxic, non-irritating and non-sensitizing. Several cases of poisoning in children have occurred with the amounts taken varying from 15ml to 75ml.
• Quality Issues: Since the oil is relatively inexpensive, it is virtually never adulterated. Other species are sometimes intermixed or substituted. It is also sometimes spiked with eucalyptol in order to meet a customer’s specification for that constituent.
• Regulatory Status: GRAS 182.20
• Tim’s Notes- I was raised in California and eucalyptus trees were all around. The famous author Jack London planted numerous acres on his property in northern California. Underneath the trees virtually nothing grows.
  
  • Eucalyptus species make up over 70% of the forest trees in Australia. Koala bears survive almost exclusively on eucalyptus leaves.
  • The oil is very easy to use and is inhaled for a variety of purposes. I like to put a bit on my mustache and breathe deeply when I’m plugged up.

Question 28

Patchouli

Answer 28

• Patchouli Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth.-Lamiaceae (mint) Family
• Synonyms: Patchouly
• Part Used: Leaves (must be dried)
• Harvest Season: Harvested throughout the growing season
• Botanical Description: Perennial shrub with hairy stems and large green leaves. It flowers only occasionally. It is native to tropical areas of Southeast Asia. There are other species of Pogostemon that contain essential oil, but they produce inferior oil. Java patchouli (P. heyneanus), also known as false patchouli, is sometimes distilled for its oil.
• Origin: Native to tropical Asia, it is commercially cultivated in Indonesia, the Philippines, China and South America.
• Growing Conditions: Patchouli prefers moist, but well-drained soil and cannot handle any frost. It can be grown from seed, but is usually propagated from cuttings.
• Extraction Method: The oil is steam-distilled from the dried leaves.
• Yield: 1.5 to 3%
• Oil Characteristics: The oil is brown to dark orange and very viscous. The newly distilled oil has a slight fresh, green odor, but as it ages, the full complexity and richness of the aroma evolves. Good quality, well-aged patchouli has a subtle, faint, earthy, musty-animal aroma at first that evolves over several minutes into a nice, deep, rich, musty sweetness.
• Aroma Profile Top Note: wine-like, elusive, floral Middle Note: rich, sweet-herbaceous, aromatic, spicy, woody-balsamic Dry-out: sweet, very tenacious
• Major Constituents: patchouli alcohol (30%), α-bulnesene (20%), α-guaiene (15%), seychellene (8%), α-patchoulene, β-patchoulene, β-caryophyllene.
• History: The fragrance of patchouli was first introduced to Europe by Napoleon when he brought patchouli-scented Indian shawls to Paris. Patchouli was being used in India to protect fine woolens from moths. It was also used throughout Southeast Asia as a medicine, incense and ingredient in perfumes.
  
  • In the U.S., it is sometimes associated with the ‘hippie days’ of the 1960s, and it is still in the top 15 essential oils sold today. It is used extensively to scent bodycare products, soaps and perfumes.
• Aromatherapy Benefits: Romantic, soothing, sensual
• Clinical Studies: In one study, 22 oils were tested against 22 bacteria and 12 fungi. Patchouli was found to inhibit 21 of the 22 bacteria and all of the fungi. (1)
  
  • Patchouli was also found to be effective in another study against E.coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes,Campylobacter jejuni and Salmonella enterica. (2)
  • Patchouli also seems to possess some repellant action as noted in a study where it clearly repelled and damaged subterranean termites. (3)
• Cosmetic Uses: Patchouli is used as a cell rejuvenator and soothing agent on troubled, mature and irritated skin. It is also used in shampoos and conditioners for oily hair. In perfumes, it makes an excellent fixative, holding the scents of other ingredients
• Safety: Patchouli is considered non-toxic, non-irritating and non-sensitizing.
• Quality: Patchouli leaves must be dried before distillation. Older oil has a richer odor.
  
  • Adulteration is occasionally done with cedarwood oil, vetiver residues and copaiba balsam.
  • Many a shopper is deceived into buying lower quality (not aged or adulterated) patchouli oil by taking a cursory whiff out of a tester bottle. The finest patchouli will seem weak and ineffectual to the lay person, because it takes several minutes for the deep, rich musty sweetness of authentic, high-quality patchouli oil to open up. Poor-quality patchouli oil may have a stronger aroma right out of the bottle, but the fragrance will be one-dimensional, un-evolving as time passes and lack the complexity of an authentic patchouli essential oil.
• Regulatory Status: Food additive FDA 121.1163
• Tim’s Notes: Everyone should buy a bottle of patchouli and put it away in their cupboard for a couple of years. The oil truly does improve with age.
  
  • When you grow your first patchouli plant, you realize that looks and scent don’t always go hand in hand. It is a very unassuming plant.
  • It was perhaps the most overused scent in dormitory rooms throughout the U.S. I can remember many a gathering in which nearly everyone seemed to smell like patchouli. It is still a very popular oil. It also blends well with many other oils.

Question 29

German Chamomile

Answer 29

• German Chamomile Matricaria recutita L. – Asteraceae Family
• Synonyms:Chamomila recutita, Matricaria chamomile, Hungarian Chamomile, Blue Chamomile.
• Part Used: Flower heads
• Harvest Season: Flowers are harvested just as they start to flower—which is usually in mid to late spring to early summer.
• Botanical Description: This beautiful plant grows 18-24 inches tall and is an annual. It has many branched stems with finely divided leaves that give it an almost feathery look. The small daisy-like flowers have white petals surrounding a yellow center. There are many species of Matricaria that are commonly confused, including mayweed and pineapple weed. Roman chamomile (Anthemis nobilis) is also sometimes confused with German chamomile.
• Origin: It is native to Europe. It is mainly grown in the eastern European countries of Hungary, Bulgaria, Serbia, Croatia, Ukraine, but also in Egypt, Argentina and Spain.
• Growing Conditions: Chamomile is easy to cultivate and will grow in virtually any soil with decent drainage. It prefers full sun and requires some moisture to grow. Once it goes to seed, you will always have more of it. It is usually spring sown, but in warmer regions it can be sown in the late fall for an earlier spring harvest. This is especially effective on the West Coast of the U.S.
• Extraction Method: The oil is steam distilled.
• Yield: .3-2%
• Oil Characteristics: The oil is deep blue and very viscous. It has a very sweet top note along with a fruity, apple-like middle note followed by a sweet, herbaceous dry out.
• Aroma Profile: Has sweet-herbaceous top note. Middle note is sweet with a coumarin like note and fruity apple-like undertone. The dry note is sweet tobacco-like.
• Major Constituents: α-bisabolol, bisabolol oxide A, β-farnesene, chamazulene, bisabolol oxide B.
• History: Chamomile has been used in the raw plant form or in teas for perhaps thousands of years. The oil is more recent and goes back no more than a few hundred years. In 1644, chemists discovered that its blue color was simply part of the oil verses some sort of reaction with the copper in the stills. (1)
  
  • The name Matricaria comes from the Latin word, Matrix, meaning the womb. Chamomile has been used to flavor many products over the years and in more recent years it has become very popular in cosmetic products.
• Aromatherapy Benefits: Calming, soothing, nourishing and relaxing.
• Clinical Studies: Chamomile is a well-studied oil. It has been shown in many studies that it has anti-inflammatory properties when used topically. (2) Along with those properties, it has been shown to be effective against itching, which makes it beneficial for eczema and allergen-induced reactions. (3)
  
  • Along with other oils like Rosemary and Thyme, it has been shown to be an effective anti-oxidant. (4)
  • German chamomile is rich in unique constituents, both monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. The oil has been shown to have anti-spasmodic action as well as liver regenerating powers. (5)
  • There are over 200 studies that have been done on the oil of German chamomile. Its uses are well known, and it is one of the oils most valued and appreciated by aromatherapists, especially in Europe.
• Cosmetic Uses: Chamomile has a long history of use in cosmetic products as well as food. In Europe it has been used to flavor various foods, soft drinks and alcohol.
  
  • Cosmetic uses include soaps, detergents, hair care, and some popular skin-care products. The smell is delightful and it’s good for sensitive, irritated or inflamed skin. It is somewhat expensive, so it is used in relatively small quantities. It is also an ingredient in some famous perfumes.
  • The oil blends well with lavender, geranium, bergamot, mandarin, neroli, rose, jasmine, ylang ylang, sandalwood and patchouli.
• Safety: Chamomile oil is considered non-toxic, non-irritating and non-sensitizing.
• Quality Issues: Though expensive, there seems to be little adulteration at this time.
• Regulatory Status: GRAS 182.20
• Tim’s Notes: This is truly one of my favorite oils. If you have room in your garden, grow chamomile. It flowers profusely and when it does, the smell is divine. Harvesting the flowers is always an aromatic treat.
  
  • The oil is expensive, but if you blend it down to a 5-10% blend, it is perfect for using as a topical oil. The oil is soothing on the skin and obviously useful for many kinds of inflammation. It blends well with wintergreen for those aches and pains you get as your body gets older. It is one of the seven or eight oils that I take with me everywhere I travel. In other words, I’m old enough to have numerous achy body parts.
  • There are many plants that look similar to chamomile and even smell somewhat like it, so make sure you get the correct species when using it.
  • The plant is native to Eastern Europe, and when I was working in the Balkans, I saw Chamomile growing everywhere. It was one of the most popular herbs with the locals there. It was a delight to see it growing wild in the fields.

Question 30

Clary Sage

Answer 30

• Clary Sage Salvia sclarea L. – Lamiaceae (mint) Family
• Synonyms: Clary, Muscatel Sage
• Part Used: Flowering tops and leaves
• Harvest Season: Early- to mid-summer
• Botanical Description: Clary sage is a biennial herbaceous member of the mint family. It grows up to three feet high with large hairy leaves and a stunning single stem flower stalk that is covered with fragrant pink and white flowers borne among leafy, violet-colored bracts. There are hundreds of species of sage, but clary is unique and virtually never mistaken for another plant.
• Origin: South Europe, Ukraine, Russia, North Africa and small amounts in the U.S. Though native to the Mediterranean, it is cultivated throughout the world and is winter hardy to Zone 5.
• Growing Conditions: Clary sage prefers full sun, a well-drained soil and average fertility. It is easily grown from seed.
• Extraction Method: Steam distillation though there is some production of absolute
• Yield: .5-1.5%
• Oil Characteristics: The oil is colorless to pale yellow, watery with an herbaceous musty scent, slightly floral and fruity.
• Aroma Profile: Top Note: sweet-herbaceous with a fresh bitter-sweet undertone Middle Note: soft, fresh herbaceous, with a sweet, bitter undertone Dry-out: balsamic, tea-like
• Major Constituents: Linalyl acetate (up to 70%) and linalool (up to 25%), β-caryophyllene, myrcene.
• History: Clary sage has a long history of use in cosmetics. More recently, it has been used as a tobacco flavoring.
• Aromatherapy Benefits: Euphoric, centering, visualizing.
  
  • Clary sage is valued for its ability to create a sense of relaxed euphoria and to ease tension in both mind and body. It has an affinity for a variety of female conditions including PMS, childbirth and menopause (1).
• Clinical Studies: Though there is a great deal of reporting on its various uses, there are few clinical trials to date. It was shown in one trial to exhibit anti-inflammatory and analgesic action. (2).
• Cosmetic Uses: Perhaps its most famous use is as an ingredient in perfumes. One of its key constituents, sclareol, is often extracted from the oil for the cosmetic industry. It seems to benefit those with oily skin and has been used for dandruff. It is used in soaps, detergents and other cosmetic products as a fixative.
  
  • It blends very well with lavender, as well as rose, geranium, neroli, jasmine and citrus.
• Safety: Clary sage essential oil is considered non-toxic, non-irritating and non-sensitizing.
• Quality Issues: Though not commonly adulterated, the essential oil is sometimes ‘spiked’ with synthetic linalool, linalyl acetate, or both. This is easily detectable with gas chromatography.
• Regulatory Status: GRAS 182.20
• Tim’s Notes: Clary Sage is a stunning herb when in flower. Though commonly grown in herb gardens the oil has been slow to become popular in the U.S. Its popularity is fast increasing and is presently one of the top 15 selling oils. Its needs are similar to Lavender, and the two are often found growing on the same farms.

Question 31

Lemon

Answer 31

• Lemon Citrus x limon (L.) Osbeck – Rutaceae Family
• Synonyms: Lemon Tree, Citrus limonum, Citrus jambhiri.
• Part Used: Peel
• Harvest Season: Varies according to the variety harvested, but it can continue virtually throughout the year
• Botanical Description: Though trees can grow to 30 feet tall, they are usually 12-18 feet in orchards. The branches and twigs have short spines that can cause injury. Leaves are green to light green in color. The flowers are white, 3-5cm in diameter and incredibly fragrant. The peel can be either smooth or rough depending on the variety grown, but it starts out green and becomes more yellow as it matures. The fruit of the smooth lemon is edible and commonly used as a juice.
• Origin: Lemon is thought to be native to Southern China or Burma. It is now most commonly cultivated in the Southern United States, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Israel, Argentina, Brazil and Peru.
• Growing Conditions: Lemon thrives in a Mediterranean type climate, but it will adapt to varying climates. It can tolerate minimal frost, but extended frost causes significant damage to the tree. It will grow in very arid conditions to medium rainfall. It requires good drainage, but only moderate fertility (though it requires more nitrogen than sweet orange).
  
  • In the U.S it is commercially grown in California and Florida, but can be grown on small scale over a much wider area. It is easily grown in parts of Texas, Arizona, Gulf Coast and parts of the Southeast.
• Extraction Method: Lemon, like all citrus oils, is usually cold pressed. (There is some distilled oil available, but it is very different and considered inferior.)
• Yield: .5%
• Oil Characteristics: The oil is yellow to yellow-green and very mobile.
• Aroma Profile: The oil is dominated by top notes, and it has a very sweet and fresh odor—similar to the ripe peel. The oil should smell lemony until the odor is gone. Because it is dominated by top notes, the scent does not linger a long time.
• Major Constituents: Limonene (70 to 90%), citral (2 to 6%).
• History: The lemon was introduced into Europe sometime in the 12th Century, with the bulk of the growing being done in Sicily. The oil was first produced in Sicily in the late 1700s. Christopher Columbus introduced the plant into the New World in 1493, and it has since flourished in the Western Hemisphere.
  
  • It was eventually introduced into Australia in 1788 and also in South Africa soon thereafter. It is a popular fruit, grown to some extent in every region where it is capable of being grown.
  • The juice of the lemon became famous when the English started giving it to their sailors to combat scurvy. (The juice is very high in vitamin C and thus prevented scurvy.) By law, each ship was required to carry one lemon or lime per sailor per day on extended voyages. Thus English sailors came to be known as ‘limies’. Sounds a bit better than ‘lemonies’.
• Aromatherapy Benefits: Balancing, uplifting, refreshing, cheering. Lemon oil is like a breath of clean fresh air and simply makes you feel better.
• Clinical Studies: There are well over 100 clinical studies on lemon oil. Historically it has been used in cleaning products for its antimicrobial properties, which have been documented in several studies (1).
  
  • In Europe, lemon essential oil is being added to animal feed in order to kill microbes and parasites. Lemon oil was shown to be effective in one study at killing and inhibiting some key parasites that affect poultry (2).
  • Citrus oils have long been used for their calming and balancing actions. One study showed the oils ability to help reduce the reactions to pain (3). Another study showed that the oil was able to reduce the errors made by typists by over 50% (4).
• Cosmetic Uses: The oil is used in numerous cosmetic products for its fragrance. The smell is always clean and uplifting. It’s found in numerous soaps, shampoos and cleaning products.
  
  • Lemon oil is especially good for the skin – its astringent action can help aging skin and its antibacterial properties are useful for a variety of conditions.
• Safety: Lemon oil is considered non-toxic and non-irritating to the skin. It does contain some bergapten, which is a strong photo toxin, as well as the less powerful oxypeucedanin. It should not be put on the skin in any appreciable quantities prior to sun exposure. Of all commonly used oils, citrus oils have the shortest shelf life. They should never be stored in hot or sunny places, and extra care should be taken to immediately place the top on after use.
• Quality Issues: Although lemon oil has been adulterated with synthetic constituents such as citral and certain terpenes,the practice isn’t common due to the oil’s low price.
• Regulatory Status: GRAS 182.20
• Tim’s Notes: Lemon oil is presently one of the top ten selling oils in North America. It’s used in numerous cosmetic products, in cooking, in cleaning products and for air freshening.
  
  • I use lemon or orange oil to clean all of my rental properties. It is an effective antimicrobial that leaves a delightful scent. I put it in my mop buckets, soap mixes, and sterilize my bathtub with it when staying in hotels.
  • I like to put it in my hotel rooms either on the carpets or in the heating/cooling vents.
  • I was raised with a lemon tree right outside my bedroom window. The fruits would be harvested off the tree for months. The scent of the flower is an incredible experience. When I moved to the upper Midwest where I couldn’t grow it outdoors, I grew one in my house. It sat about 10 feet from my bed and when it flowered I was in heaven. Of course the fruits were nice also, especially in the middle of a cold winter night. If I had my way everyone would have a lemon tree in their house. Now that I live in Hawaii, I have already planted several citrus trees outside my house, but I also have a lemon tree in a large pot right outside my bedroom.
  • I love to use lemon oil in cooking. It imparts a wonderful taste and flavor to fish, chicken, and salad dressings.

Question 32

Geranium

Answer 32

• Geranium Pelargonium graveolens L’Her. ex Aiton. – Geraniaceae Family
• Synonyms: Rose geranium, sweet scented geranium
• Parts Used: Leaves, flowers and stem (although the stem contains very little oil)
• Harvest Season: Yield is highest when the plant is in full flower, and thus the harvest time will vary from location to location and multiple harvests in a season are possible
• Botanical Description: Geranium grows about 3 feet in height, forming a nice spreading bush. It is a perennial, with fragrant, rather hairy green leaves and a small umbel shaped flower of pink or purple color.
• Origin: The genus, Pelargonium, contains over 250 species of which over 200 are native to South Africa, 18 in the rest of Africa, 8 to Australia, 2 in Madagascar, 2 in the Middle East, and one each on the remote South Atlantic islands of St. Helena (where Napoleon died) and Tristan de Cunha.
  
  • They are easily hybridized, and there is some confusion as to the correct origin of some of the cultivars. Today, any geranium cultivated for oil, no matter its true botanical name, is generally referred to asPelargonium graveolens. It is commonly grown in the Reunion Islands in the Indian Ocean—this variety is known as Bourbon Geranium. It has a different constituent makeup than other cultivars.
  • Geranium is also commercially cultivated in Egypt, China, Morocco, Algeria, France, Ukraine, Russia and other parts of Africa.
• Growing Conditions: Geranium will grow well in tropical or sub-tropical regions. It will stand minimal frost, but will not overwinter below Zone 8 in the U.S. It prefers warm, dry sunny weather during the growing season. It can be grown as an annual, but this is not cost-effective in most cases. In the U.S., it grows best in parts of California, South Texas and parts of Florida.
  
  • It prefers a fertile, well-drained, slightly acidic soil. Poor drainage is the bane of its existence and it is susceptible to fungus.
• Extraction Method: The oil is steam distilled from slightly wilted leaves, flowers and stems. Over drying and exposure of the leaves to sun causes a significant loss of oil.
• Yield: The oil yield is only .15% to .25%. (This is somewhat compensated for by the high yield of herbage per acre.)
• Oil Characteristics: Bourbon has a green olive to greenish brown color and a green rosy scent. It is very mobile. Moroccan geranium is yellow to yellow green in color, and the Egyptian is similar, but perhaps a little more green. Chinese geranium is dark olive green with a bit of brown or brownish-yellow in it.
• Aroma Profile: Bourbon has a strong, harsh top note, most likely due to the guaiadiene, 6,9, which is also found in Chinese geranium. It is followed by a sweet, rosy green, minty middle note that is quite delightful. The base note is long lasting, very sweet and rosy.
  
  • Egyptian and Moroccan oils have a sweeter top note, very fruity and minty, followed by a sweet-rosy middle note and a nice sweet-rosy dry out.
• Major Constituents: Geraniol (7 to 20%), citronellol (20 to 40%), linalool (5 to 15%), menthone, geranyl formate, 10-epi-γ-eudesmol (Egypt, Morocco, Algeria), guaiadiene-6,9 (China).
• History: First named in South Africa in the late 1600s, the geranium was introduced into Europe by the early 1700s. From there they spread around the globe. Cultivation began in France in the early 1800s and went to Algeria and the Reunion Islands, where it has been successfully cultivated for over 130 years.
  
  • Baron Edmond de Rothschild introduced it into what is present day Israel in the late 1800s, which started the still ongoing essential oil industry in that region.
• Aromatherapy Benefits: Geranium oil is balancing to the skin, useful for both oily and dry skin. It can be strongly astringent, but seems to balance sebum production. It is calming and comforting.
• Clinical Studies: There have been numerous studies performed on geranium oil. Several studies have confirmed its ability to inhibit or kill bacteria (1) as well as fungus (2). Another study showed geranium oils ability to inhibit methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (3). Other studies have further verified the geraniums ability to inhibit or kill bacteria and fungus.
• Cosmetic Uses: The oil is used as a fragrance in many bath and soap products. Due to its ability to balance sebum production, it is very popular in a wide range of skin products. Its strong astringent action can reduce inflammation and is beneficial for pimples, minor swelling, wounds, etc.
• Safety: Geranium oil is considered non-toxic, non-irritating and non-sensitizing, though there have been cases of dermatitis in hypersensitive individuals (4).
• Quality Issues: Commonly adulterated with synthetic geraniol and citronellol. The less expensive citronella oil is sometimes blended into it. The fresh oil of Bourbon Geranium often has a tinge of sulfur smell to it due to small amounts of demethyl sulphide produced by the plant during the short drying process. As the oil ages in short time the sulfur will dissipate.
• Regulatory Status: GRAS 182.20
• Tim’s Notes: When asked what five oils they would bring to a deserted isle, most aromatherapists would include geranium oil. It is a very safe and easy oil to use and it has so many applications. It’s a wonderful oil for the skin, a good astringent, great for scenting the air and inhibiting microbes, and very calming.
  
  • I love to use geranium in a bath and I think it blends well with many oils, especially lavender and clary sage. It tends to overpower other scents, so remember that a little geranium goes a long ways.
  • Quoting Gabriel Mojay: “Geranium is ideal for the workaholic perfectionist—the person who has forgotten imagination, intuition and sensory experience. In other words, it lets the mind relax and wonder along its natural pathways.”
  • Mixed with German chamomile and salt, geranium makes an excellent poultice for inflamed skin conditions. Just mix the two oils with salt, slap it on the skin and then wrap with a cloth.
  • Some people prefer the Bourbon variety of the oil, I find both Bourbon and North African oils to be equally delightful, though slightly different in smell.

Question 33

Sweet Orange

Answer 33

• Orange Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck – Rutaceae (rue) Family
• Synonyms: Citrus x aurantium var. sinensis , sweet orange, China orange
• Part Used: Fresh peels (pericarp) of the ripe, or almost ripe, fruit
• Harvest Season: Varies greatly according to the variety used
• Botanical Description: The orange tree is 30 to 60 feet tall with glossy, dark green leaves. The flowers are fragrant, but are not the orange flowers used to make neroli oil. (Neroli comes from the flowers of bitter orange.)
• Origin: The orange tree originated in Eastern Asia, but is now cultivated extensively in the U.S., France, Australia, Italy, Spain, Sicily, Israel, Brazil and other areas.
• Growing Conditions: Orange trees prefer a tropical to subtropical environment, with excellent drainage and plenty of sunshine.
• Extraction Method: The oil is cold-pressed from orange peels. A distilled oil is also available, but it is inferior.
• Yield: 0.5%
• Oil Characteristics: The oil is orange-yellow, dark orange or occasionally brownish orange in color with a thin body.
• Aroma Profile: Top Note: refreshing citrus Middle Note: sweet, fresh, fruity-aldehydic Dry-out: bitter-sweet, dry citrus
• Major Constituents: limonene (95%), aldehydes including decanol and geranial make up less than 2%, linalool (less than 1%).
• History: The orange was long-known and appreciated in China for its cooling, nutritive and healing properties. It wasn’t used much in Europe until the late 1600s because of its expense.
• Aromatherapy Benefits: Uplifting, refreshing, cheering.
  
  • A great oil to use in the winter as the aroma evokes a bit of summer’s long sunny days.
• Clinical Studies: Orange oil has been shown to possess antifungal and antibacterial qualities (1). This is why it is commonly used in cleaning products and for cleansing the air.
  
  • It has also been shown to aid in the administration of anesthesia to children to help them relax and be more cooperative (2).
  • Orange oil also exhibits insecticidal actions in some studies and is often used in animal products used to repel fleas and other insects (3).
• Cosmetic Uses: Orange oil is used, well diluted, in cosmetic preparations for dull or oily skin. It blends well with flower oils such as lavender, neroli and rose, and spice oils like nutmeg, clove and cinnamon. Orange oil is also used extensively in lively, citrus-like colognes.
• Safety: Sweet Orange Oil is considered non toxic, non-irritating and non-sensitizing. In large quantities, it can be slightly irritating to the skin. (Bitter orange oil is more irritating and can cause photosensitivity.)
• Quality Issues: Adulterants are synthetic limonene and other terpenes. The lower quality distilled oil is also substituted for pressed oil. Pressed orange oil has virtually no antioxidant activity, meaning it reacts with oxygen, which results in a shorter shelf life than most essential oils. Extra care should be taken to store the essential oil in airtight bottles and keep away from heat and light. The oil should be used within a year of opening.
• Regulatory Status: GRAS 182.20
• Tim’s Notes: Sweet Orange is one of the most popular and easy to use oils available. It blends easily with other oils and has an uplifting scent. When I stay in hotels (which I do most weeks), I almost always put some orange oil in my room to freshen up the air, kill some microbes, and lift the mood of the room.
  
  • It is commonly misstated that sweet orange oil is phototoxic, but it does not possess the coumarins that cause that action in any quantity. Several other citrus oils do, including bitter orange and especially bergamot oil.
  • Sweet orange oil (often in combination with lemon oil) is commonly used in cleaning products. I add it to my mop bucket, my soap and water mix for cleaning toilets, bathtubs, showers, etc. It’s also an excellent room freshener, and studies have verified its ability to kill microbes. Being the least expensive oil, along with lemon, it is perfect for cleaning.
  • It is a calming and relaxing oil, but will not necessarily induce sleep. If you need an oil to cheer your mood, orange is such an oil. It also blends well with lavender and rose, my two favorite oils for brightening my day.
  • The studies by Hirsch on scent have shown Lemon and Orange oils to be the most effective oils at encouraging people to spend more money. You will often smell citrus scent when in casinos or other venues where they hope that you’ll spend your cash.
  • Note: This is one of those oils that will stain your clothes, so be careful not to spill it on a clean white shirt.

Question 34

Bergamot

Answer 34

• Bergamot Citrus bergamia Risso & Poit. – Rutaceae (rue) Family
• Synonyms: Citrus x aurantium, bergamot orange
• Part Used: Peels (pericarp) of unripe fruit
• Harvest Season: November through March (in the prime growing region of Calabria, Italy)
• Botanical Description: Bergamot is a small tree kept pruned to 15-20 feet in height. The aromatic, inedible fruit is green and smaller than an orange, turning yellow when ripe.
• Origin: The origin is uncertain, possibly Southern Asia or Africa—however most commercial essential oil production occurs in the Calabria region of Italy, with a small amount of production in France, Morocco and on the Ivory Coast.
• Growing Conditions: Bergamot grows best in the Calabria region of Italy, where the conditions are ideal – warm and sunny with a well-drained soil. The trees don’t like it too hot and don’t take frost as well as many citrus species. It takes approximately 7 years for trees to bear fruit, and they may continue to produce for over 50 years.
• Extraction Method: The oil is cold pressed from the peels. Originally done by hand, most oil is now pressed by machines. A distilled oil is also available, but it does not have the same aroma and flavor of the pressed oil.
• Yield: 0.5%
• Oil Characteristics: The oil is clear to yellowish-green in color with a thin body.
• Aroma Profile: Top Note: rich, sweet-fruity, citrus Middle Note: herbaceous, floral-citrus, sweet, slightly oily Dry-out: light, sweet-balsamic, tea-like
• Major Constituents: Limonene, linalool, linalyl acetate, γ-terpinene, β-pinene.
• History: In the 16th Century, Eau de Cologne was created by the Feminis family—one of the key ingredients was and is bergamot oil. The product became very popular, and soon bergamot was commonly sold and sought after. While it is uncertain when the tree was introduced to Italy, the first groves were planted in the Calabria region in the mid-1700s in response to growing demand for the oil for use in perfumery. Prior to then, the fruit and oil were used as a folk remedy in various parts of Italy. Bergamot is the well-known flavoring agent in Earl Grey tea. In perfumery, it is still used extensively in colognes for fresh, lively notes.
• Aromatherapy Benefits: Uplifting, normalizing, confidence boosting
• Clinical Studies: Though it has a variety of therapeutic uses around the world, there are no clinical studies that have verified its actions.
• Cosmetic Uses: Blends well with coriander, cypress, geranium, lavender, jasmine, Roman chamomile, neroli.
• Safety: Natural bergamot is a photosensitizer and should not be used on the skin in any form before exposure to ultraviolet light. The alternative to natural bergamot (bergamot BF) is oil that has the photosensitizing element (bergaptene) removed. Removing this constituent does not affect bergamot’s flavor or aroma. Bergamot oil should not be used undiluted on skin as it is a mild irritant.
• Quality Issues: Bergamot is commonly spiked with synthetic linalool and synthetic linalyl acetate. It has also been blended with less expensive bitter orange or other citrus oils. Though it is a citrus oil, it has a very different constituent makeup than sweet orange or lemon oil and has a longer shelf life.
• Regulatory Status: GRAS 182.2
• Tim’s Notes: This is a very unique citrus oil in that it contains only about 30% limonene (sweet orange and lemon oil contain almost 95% limonene). Bergamot also contains a significant amount of linalool and linalyl acetate, two key constituents in lavender oil. No wonder it is commonly used for clarifying and relaxation.
  
  • This oil has the highest level of bergaptene (the coumarin compound that causes photosensitivity) of all the commonly sold oils. Due to this, it should never be applied before going out into the sun. I once gave a class to a group and several people in an aromatherapy club approached me afterwards. They all had little burn marks on their hands between their thumbs and forefingers. They said that each week they applied a different blend to that area and suddenly they had this dark mark. I asked what was in this week’s blend and bergamot was the key oil. I explained to them that they simply had burned their hand due to the sun’s action on the area where the bergamot oil was applied. They vowed never again to use bergamot oil. I told them they could use the bergaptene-free oil which eliminates the danger of photo reaction, but I don’t know if they ever have used bergamot oil since.
  • A lot of people in the Central and Eastern U.S. react every summer to the Wild Parsnip. They often get blisters after weeding it out of their gardens. This is also due to the coumarin contained in it, exactly like what bergamot oil can do.
  • We often talk in the plant world about how natural disasters often affect crops in a major way. Hurricanes are famous for destroying crops like saw palmetto and nutmeg, and crops are also damaged by floods, drought, fires, tsunamis and even volcanoes. In 1965 the bergamot crop was severely damaged when a Sirocco wind from Africa swept over the Italian trees causing a rapid rise in temperature that had the affect of virtually ruining the quality of the crop that year.

Question 35

Ylang Ylang

Answer 35

• Ylang Ylang Cananga odorata J. D. Hook. & T. Thompson – Annonaceae Family
• Synonyms: Cananga odoratum, Unona odoratissimum
• Parts Used: Freshly picked flowers
• Harvest Season: Throughout the year, always very early in the morning
• Botanical Description: Ylang Ylang is a tall evergreen tree reaching up to 100 feet in height. In order to insure easy harvest, it is pruned to approximately 10 feet in height. A large number of very brittle branches extend from the trunk. The wood is of little value. Leaves are numerous, shiny green on top and dull green and slightly hairy underneath. The flowers are numerous and very large. They are strongly scented, yellow or yellow-green in color. Flowers start out more green and become yellow as they mature on the tree. They bloom all year long.
• Origin: Ylang Ylang is native to Southeast Asia, but it is now cultivated throughout the tropical world.
• Growing Conditions: The plant is generally sown in place due to its large taproot and it prefers a rich and deep soil. It grows in very moist tropical regions, with Indonesia, Madagascar and the Reunion and Comoros Islands being the largest producers.
  
  • The trees are pruned to 10 feet in a more or less espalier shape. This is for easy hand harvest. The main flowering season is the dry spring season, though production goes on all year. The flowers must mature on the tree—if picked too early, they are of inferior quality.
• Extraction Method: The fresh blossoms are steam distilled. It is a unique oil in that the process is stopped at four points to produce four completely unique oils, Extra, 1, 2 and 3. Often the 1, 2 and 3 are blended together. Extra is considered the top grade and usually separated out. Grade 3 is also commonly used, but grades 1 and 2 are seldom sold separately and are considered inferior to both Extra and #3.
• Yield: 2 to 2.5%
• Oil Characteristics: Ylang ylang is yellow to pale yellow, viscous yet fluid.
• Aroma Profile: Top Note: very floral and sweet. Middle Note: also floral with a slight balsamic-woody undertone. Dry out: continues to be floral with some balsamic scent.
• Major Constituents: Farnesene, benzyl acetate, linalool, p-cresyl methyl ether, β-caryophyllene, geranyl acetate, benzyl benzoate.
• History: Though it is native to Southeast Asia, it is now naturalized in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia and many Pacific islands. Indonesia is by far the largest supplier in the world today.
  
  • The first records of distillation are in the mid-1800s in the Philippines. The Philippines dominated the world market up to World War I. The Chinese started producing the oil in the past 50 years, and they are steadily increasing their plantations.
  • The French introduced the plant, and then the oil, in Reunion Islands, and had significant production until World War I. Soon thereafter, production started on Madagascar, but its plantations have also declined to much smaller numbers.
• Aromatherapy Benefits: Ylang ylang is considered to be a very sensual oil, euphoric and, of course, romantic. It is also considered to be calming and soothing.
• Clinical Studies: Ylang ylang, like many oils, has been shown to possess antibacterial properties against various bacteria, including Staphylococcus aureus (1). In another trial, it was shown to kill Pseudomonas aeruginosa and also inhibit Candida albicans (2).
  
  • Ylang ylang has also been shown to be one of the most effective and popular oils for epilepsy as shown in a clinical trial performed by Dr. Betts of England (3).
• Cosmetic Uses: Ylang ylang has a long history of use in perfumery. Extra is the most desired oil for this purpose. It is also used in soaps, detergents and other cleaning products for its delightful, long-lasting floral scent. It is sometimes referred to as the “Perfume Tree” and also as the “Flower of Flowers.”
  
  • Ylang ylang is recommended in nearly every essential book for oily skin and is in many formulas for the skin. It is also commonly used in hair products. A famous product, Macassar oil, is a blend of ylang ylang oil and coconut oil.
  • In Indonesia, the flowers are strewn on the bed of newlyweds because it is considered an aphrodisiac. It is also used for its calming action and is thus added to numerous formulas to help people relax.
  • The oil blends well with many others, including citrus, lavender, jasmine, rose, patchouli, sandalwood, cassia, clove, clary sage and my favorite, cardamom.
• Safety: The oil is considered non-toxic, non-irritating, and non-sensitizing, but the inhalation of large amounts can sometimes induce headaches or nausea.
• Quality Issues: Ylang ylang is commonly adulterated with the cheaper cananga oil. The Extra can also be adulterated with the less expensive 1, 2 or 3.
• Regulatory Status: GRAS 182.20
• Tim’s Notes- Ylang ylang is one of the most popular oils in the world. Few scents are as floral and sweet. It is one of the most popular “love oils,” and I like to blend it with cardamom and a little rose or jasmine. I have found women to like the scent of ylang ylang more than men, but with the cardamom added, I’ve found both sexes enjoy the blend. I always use the Extra grade when I blend with ylang ylang.
  
  • The flower is stunning. It’s large, covering the tree, and its aroma when mature is out of this world. The effect is much more pronounced when the tree is pruned—the flowers are somewhat lost in a mature 60-foot tree, whereas on a 10 foot pruned tree, they command your full attention. If you live in a tropical area, you must grow this tree.
  • Ylang ylang is very soothing to the skin and a nice addition to the bath. It blends very well with Aura Cacia Rose Absolute Precious Oil to make an excellent skin blend.
  • Some people simply don’t like floral scents, sad though it is. For those people, ylang ylang is not their oil. For the rest of us, it is a joy.

Question 36

Rosemary

Answer 36

• Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis L. – Lamiaceae (mint) Family
• Synonyms: Rosmarinus coronarium
• Parts Used: Leaves, flowers and twigs.
• Harvest Season: Harvested when in full flower, usually in late spring.
• Botanical Description: Evergreen shrub growing from 2-6 feet in height depending on the variety. The leaves are thick, very aromatic, resinous on the exterior, linear, the flowers are light to dark blue. It’s botanical name means, dew of the sea. (This is because rosemary naturally grows very near to the Mediterranean Sea.)
• Origin: Rosemary is native to the Mediterranean from Spain to the Balkans and into North Africa. It is now cultivated worldwide, with Spain, Morocco, Tunisia, France and China being the major producers.
• Growing Conditions: Rosemary likes a relatively dry, well-drained soil of average fertility. In the U.S. it grows best in California and parts of the Southwest, as well as in Texas and parts of the Southeast. It is hardy only into Zone 7.
• Extraction Method: Rosemary is steam distilled.
• Yield: .5 to 2%
• Oil Characteristics: The oil is pale yellow to colorless and very mobile. It has a strong woody herbaceous top note, followed by a strong camphoraceous scent.
• Aroma Profile: The top note is fresh, short-lived. The body note is woody-herbaceous, minty-forest-like, balsamic camphoraceous. The dry-out is less tenacious, camphoraceous.
• Major Constituents: Rosemary (Spain) 1,8-cineole (15 to 25%), camphor (13 to 18.5%), α-pinene (18 to 26%), camphene (8 to 12%), β-pinene, myrcene, limonene, bornyl acetate, borneol, verbenone. Rosemary (Tunisia, Morocco) 1,8-cineole (38 to 55%), camphor (5 to 15%), α-pinene (9 to 14%), camphene (2.5 to 6%), β-pinene (4 to 9%), bornyl acetate, borneol, verbenone, linalool.
• History: Rosemary has been used medicinally for several thousand years. It was considered sacred by the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians and Hebrews. The herb is one of the most popular cooking spices.
  
  • It was a popular ingredient in the famous Queen of Hungary water and in early colognes. It’s burning symbolized both life and death. The smoke and oil was inhaled for brain weakness—thus Shakespeare’s line, “Rosemary is for remembrance.”
  • Aromatherapy Benefits: Rosemary is stimulating, warming, purifying, antioxidant and antiseptic.
• Clinical Studies: Rosemary has long been used as an antiseptic and it has been shown to have antimicrobial properties (1).
  
  • Rosemary has also been shown to have some antispasmodic action (2).
• Cosmetic Uses: Rosemary is used in numerous skin care products for it’s stimulating and warming actions. It is used in hair care products to stimulate hair growth and prevent dandruff.
• Safety: It is considered non-toxic in smaller doses, non-irritating and non-sensitizing. It is contraindicated in pregnancy and is not recommended in large doses.
• Quality Issues: Rosemary can be adulterated with white camphor oil, fractions of eucalyptus oil and Spanish sage Oil.
• Tim’s Notes: In the right environment, rosemary is incredibly easy to grow and harvest. When harvested the resin sticks to your fingers and smells great for hours and hours. It’s a very strong antioxidant and is commonly used to preserve food.
  
  • The oil is very strong and a little goes a long way. It only takes a couple of drops in a bathtub to do its thing. It helps me stay awake at night to drive and keeps me alert before meetings or when taking a test. It’s excellent in a body mist
  • The old Shakespeare saying, “Rosemary is for remembrance” seems to be true—recent studies on rosemary have shown its ability to improve short-term memory.

Question 37

Sandalwood

Answer 37

• Sandalwood Santalum spp.,Santalaceae Family
• Synonyms: East Indian Sandalwood, Mysore Sandalwood, White Sandalwood, Yellow Sandalwood, Australian Sandalwood, Chandana.
• Parts Used: The best oil is typically produced from the heartwood of either the main trunk of the tree or the root.
• Botanical Description: Indian sandalwood (Santalum album), is a medium-sized evergreen tree growing to 50-60 feet in height with the trunk being up to eight feet across. Sandalwood is somewhat unique in that it is parasitic, it must attach its roots to another species in order to survive. The bark is brownish gray and the leaves are medium to dark green on the top surface and lighter underneath. The flowers are pale yellow at first before turning red or purple. They are not overly showy, but attractive. They bloom February through April. The fruit is purple black when ripe, contains a single seed, and is highly desired by birds and other animals.
  
  • Australian sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) is a small tree growing 10-25 feet in height and up to 5 feet in diameter on the oldest trees. It is a parasite and most commonly attaches itself to Acacia species. The leaves are dull grayish green, opposite and lanceolate. The flowers are small, but numerous and quite attractive. The seeds are known as Quandong nuts to the locals.
  • There are 15-20 species of Santalum in the world—with perhaps seven having been harvested at one time or another for the wood or oil.
• Origin: Santalum album is most likely native to India, Malaysia and Indonesia. Other species grow throughout the Pacific Islands to Hawaii and down to Australia and in China. Australian sandalwood is native to the drier parts of Western Australia.
  
  • Today it is harvested mainly in India, Indonesia and Australia.
• Growing Conditions: Sandalwood (Santalum album) is a tropical tree that requires adequate moisture, but the roots cannot be waterlogged. It will grow in marginal soils, but grows best in at least an average soil. It does not survive fires and does not grow in grazed land. It is said that it will attach its parasitic roots to over 300 species, but it does have its favorites. Like Australian sandalwood, it likes Acacia as well as Calotropis gigantean and several species of Cassia.
  
  • Australian sandalwood grows in a very dry environment and matures more slowly than Indian sandalwood. It grows on a variety of soils and is parasitic with fewer species.
  • In the U.S., sandalwood could only be cultivated in Hawaii, Puerto Rico or the Virgin Islands.
• Extraction Method: The oil comes from the steam distillation of the heartwood of the large branches, main trunk and root. A concrete and absolute are made, but not commonly sold, at this point.
• Yield: The average yield is 4.5-6.5% with the root yielding the highest percentage.
• Oil Characteristics: The oil is pale yellow to yellow in color and very viscous.
• Aroma Profile: The top note is subtle. The middle notes are sweet, woody and animal-balsamic. The dry out is long lasting, tenacious and comparable to the middle notes.
• Major Constituents: Alpha-santalol (40-50%), beta-santalol (17-27%), trans beta santalol, epi-beta santalol, cis- and trans-nuciferol. Total santalol content should be near 90%. Australian sandalwood differs in having less alpha santalol, and has two compounds—farnesol and bergamotol-like compounds—that are not found in Santalum album.
• History: Few oils have a history of use as long as sandalwood. Its use goes back over 1,000 years and the aromatic wood has been used for over 4,000 years. Its Sanskrit name is Chandana, and it was the Arabs who first called it “sandal” and passed it on to the Europeans.
  
  • The Chinese were probably introduced to it by Buddhist monks from India who carried with them sandalwood incense sticks. Sandalwood sticks (eventually called joss sticks) became very common in China.
  • Sandalwood is, and has always been, highly prized as a carving wood. It has been traded throughout the East for this purpose.
  • The English demand for tea greatly expanded the sandalwood trade. The Chinese suppliers of tea would only take gold or sandalwood in trade, so the British sought out sandalwood far and wide. This was what caused the near total destruction of the sandalwood species native to Hawaii.
  • In Hawaii it is known as Iliaha, and the species is S. ellipticum. It is a medium-size tree that was once quite common in Hawaii. After its exploitation, the plant was nearly extinct and has never recovered on the islands to any extent.
  • The Australian market was opened up for the same reason, but fortunately the supply was large—and it entered the market rather late in the game—and thus survived extreme overharvesting. In the mid 1900s, it was commonly replanted in western Australia to the point where it is now actively cultivated and managed by the Australian government.
  • Sandalwood reached Europe only in the past couple hundred years on a large scale. It became a very popular oil and has remained so throughout the past century.
• Aromatherapy Benefits: Sandalwood is calming, relaxing, centering, cooling, erotic and sensual. It is commonly used in meditation.
• Clinical Studies: There have been a number of interesting clinical studies done on sandalwood. Most notable have been the studies on its impact on Herpes Simplex 1. In one study, it was shown that sandalwood, when applied early during the viruses course, would stop replication of the virus totally. (1) This was further substantiated by Jurgen Reichling in studies he performed in Germany in the past couple of years.
  
  • Sandalwood has also been shown to have a calming, relaxing and sedative effect—which is no surprise as it has been used for this purpose for a long time. (2)
  • Many oils have been tested and found to be effective at inhibiting the common fungus Candida spp. Sandalwood has been shown to inhibit Candida at very small concentrations. (3)
• Cosmetic Uses: Due to its tenacious odor it has long been used in perfumery as a fixative. It is used in numerous skin care products for its soothing, cooling and moisturizing action. It can be used on all skin types and is especially effective for eczema, psoriasis, and for oily acne skin.
  
  • Sandalwood blends well with almost everything. It provides the base to many oils dominated more by their top or middle notes like lavender, rose, rosewood, geranium, citrus, as well as with some spicy oils like clove, cinnamon and pepper and it also blends with other base oils like vetiver and patchouli.
• Safety: A very safe oil that is considered non-toxic, non-irritating and non-sensitizing.
• Regulatory Status: GRAS 182.20. FDA 121.1163
• Quality Issues: Sandalwood is commonly adulterated due to its high price and supply issues. Common adulterants include Indian bastard sandal (Erthroxylum monogynum), cedarwood oil, castor oil, glycerine acetate, various odorless solvents (including diethyl phthalate, terpineol, Amyris balsamifera) and other less desirable species of sandalwood.
• Tim’s Notes: To say I adore sandalwood is an understatement. I have planted it on my property in Hawaii and have sought out any native stands of it. It is a somewhat subtle, but beautiful tree and very hardy.
  
  • The oil is wonderful smelling and easy to use with other oils. Therapeutically, it is one of the most effective oils around. Due to its high viscosity, it lingers when applied—and so is easy to apply to various body parts, including toes and toenails. I will often blend it with tea tree oil to take the edge out of its somewhat overpowering scent when using it topically. Since both are good anti-fungal oils, they are a nice blend.
  • There has been much discussion recently about the status of sandalwood in the world. No doubt it has been overharvested to some degree in India and again in Indonesia. There is concern that it could easily become endangered in those two countries. Obviously in Hawaii, it was nearly harvested to extinction. Australia is seemingly doing an excellent job of managing their supply of S. spicatum and it may well be the long-term supplier of sandalwood oil.