Key Definitions Flashcards
Behavioral categories
When clearly defined behaviors are identified, and can be observed and recorded.
Confounding variables
Formed when an extraneous variable influences the Dependent Variable.
Counterbalancing
A type of experimental design in which all possible orders of presenting variables are included, so you can measure the effects in all possible situations.
Controlled observation
A research method where behaviors seen are recorded by researchers in situations where they have manipulated the social / physical environment.
Covert observation
Research in which participants are unaware they are being watched (aka non-disclosed observation).
Coding frames
Used to identify more specific behavior within a behavior category, or to record the severity of a behavior.
Closed questions
Where a fixed number of responses are offered / answers are listed and respondents choose from those provided.
Construct validity
Whether or not the measures relate to the assumed characteristics of what is being assessed.
Concurrent validity
How well a current test relates or matches with a previously well established one on the same topic.
Criterion validity
The extent to which the test relates to or can predict the results of another similar, related variable.
Dependent variable (DV)
The variable that is being measured / observed and results as a consequence of the change / manipulation to the IV.
Demand characteristics
Features of the research that could cause participants to change their behavior e.g. Clues and ideas of what study may be about.
Can be reduced by a ‘single-blind procedure’.
Double-blind procedure
When neither the participant nor the researcher knows aim of the procedure. Can assist in eliminating investigator effects.
Extraneous variables
Any factors other than the IV that may influence the DV.
External validity
Extent to which the findings can be applied outside the study e.g. To other individuals, cultures, situations etc.
External reliability
Extent to which the results of a procedure can be replicated from one time to another. Will be good if it always produces same results.
Field experiment
Take place outside lab in a natural environment, where IV is under direct control of experimenter and DV can be measured, but setting is more like participants usual environment.
Face validity
Whether or not the report technique looks as if it will measure what it intends to measure I.e. If questions are related to topic or not.
Independent Variable (IV):
Variable that is directly manipulated and controlled by the experimenter, and influences the DV.
Investigator effects
When something about the researcher could influence participants behavior and in turn affect the research findings e.g. Gender, looks, ethnicity etc.
Independent measures design:
Involves two independent groups of participants, so data from each group is independent of each other. Eliminated demand characteristics, but may have individual differences e.g. IQ.
Internal validity
Measure of whether or not effects are genuinely being caused by the IV.
Instantaneous scan sampling
A time sampling method where only the behavior performed during time interval is noted, everything else is ignored.
Inter-rater reliability
Researchers observing the same behavior and coding behavior in the same way.
Internal reliability
The consistency of questions within the measure itself and whether or not they are measuring the same phenomenon.
So whether the procedure is standardized so that each participant experiences same thing.
Laboratory experiment
Run in controlled environments and conditions with the experimenter in full control of variables that may affect behavior, so minimizes extraneous variables.
Likert scales
Type of question that measures attitudes using a statement to which participants respond by choosing an option from choices such as ‘strongly agree’ / ‘agree’ / ‘unsure’ / ‘disagree’ / ‘strongly disagree’.
Matched pairs design
Similar to an independent group, however uses different participants for each condition, a participant from group 1 is matched to a corresponding participant in group 2 on a number of variables.
Naturalistic observations
Research method in which behaviors seen in participants normal environment are recorded without interference from researchers in either social or physical environment.
Non participant observation
Way of collecting data such that participants behavior is recorded by a researcher who is not engaging with them as part of social setting. Observer may be overt or covert.
Operationalisation
Making sure the variables are clearly defined with a level of precision. IV must be stated precisely and DV needs to be clearly measured and quantifiable.
Order effects:
Refers to measuring whether the positioning / order of question or tasks in a survey / test etc, influences the outcome of a survey.
Observation / observational method:
Research method within its own right, where study solely consists of watching people and recording what is observed to obtain data and gather information about their behavior.
Observational technique
A technique used to collect data about variables in other research methods e.g. Lab or field experiments.
Overt observation
Research in which the role of the observer is known to participants (aka disclosed observation).
One-zero sampling
Recording whether behavior occurred or not during the interval (a time sampling method).
Open questions
Where free responses are allowed and allows the respondent to giver their ideas and views.
Participant variables
Factors about the participant that could influence the findings of study e.g. Age, intelligence, gender etc.
Participant observation
Way of collecting data such that the participants’ behavior is recorded by researcher who is engaged with them as part of the social setting.
Predominant activity sampling
Recording behavior that is performed most frequently during the time interval (a time sampling method).
Pilot study
Used to decrease some of the potential problems in experiments, observations and self reports, by allowing researchers to identify and resolve them before they occur. Carried out prior to investigation.
Population Validity
Refers to whether the sample is representative of wider target population, and whether or not it can be generalized to whole population.
Quantifiable
Converting data into number form to analyze it more easily.
Quasi experiment
An experiment where the researcher makes use of naturally occurring variables, however it is not a true experiment be jade the scientist cannot manipulate the IV.
Aka natural experiment.
Qualitative research
To do with quality, focuses on collecting opinions, is less controls and analysis can be subjective.
Quantitative research
To do with quantity, focuses on collecting numbers, is very controlled and analysis is objective.
Repeated measures design
When the same group of people participate in both conditions of the experiment. Can minimize individual differences but may lead to demand characteristics since they have done experiment once before.
Reliability
Refers to the consistency of the research, and can be obtained through control.
Rating scale
A numerical scale in which a participant indicates a choice by selecting on number, so provides quantitative data, can be used to give a numerical answer to a question or indicate extent to which the participant agrees with a statement.
Single blind procedure
When only the experimenter knows the details of the study. This involves deception and can raise ethical concerns.
Situational variables
Factors about the situation participants are in that could influence the findings of the study e.g. Time of day, temp, investigator effects etc.
Structured observation
A research method in which an observer records a specified range of behaviors in pre-decided and pre-defined categories.
Self report techniques
Asking a participant about their thoughts and behavior and recording their answers in various ways e.g. Questionnaires, interviews, psychometrics etc.
Semantic differential
Type of rating scale that allows participants to choose on a scale between two extremes. Used to measure attitudes and to test the meanings that the participant associates with a concept.
Structured interview
Ask predominantly closed questions in a fixed order. Questions are likely to be scripted so they are standardized. Consistency may be required for interview posture etc.
Semi-structured interview
Uses a fixed list of open and closed questions, although interview can introduce additional questions if required.
Social desirability bias
When respondents give answers they think researcher might want so to please them, or they may not be honest when answering if they think someone will judge or not agree. Can be particularly true with a sensitive topic.
Split half method
Measure of internal reliability in which scores from two halves of a test are compared, if correlate with each other then measure has good reliability.
Unstructured observation
A research method in which an observer records a non-specified, wide range of behaviors including any that seem relevant, but has no particular system in which to do this.
Unstructured interview
Generally begins with a standard question, but from there on, questions depend on respondents answers. May include a list of topic for the interviewer to cover.
Validity
Refers to how genuine something is, whether or not it is measuring what it claims to be. High validity is obtained when it is certain that changes to DV can only have been caused by IV, as extraneous variables are controlled.
Androcentric
Bound to only one gender
Androcentrism
Practice of placing male human beings or masculine points of view at the centre of ones world view, culture and history.
Ethnocentric
Bound to only one culture.
Ecological validity
True to everyday life and reflects real world situations.
Ethnocentrism
Seeing the world from a culturally biased perspective, can cause a researcher to see own culture as superior and subjects culture as inferior.
Generalizability
Extent to which research findings can be applied to settings other than that in which they were originally tested.
Imitation
Copying behavior you have observed by others in another context.
Lateralisation
The specialization of the different hemispheres of the brain.
Observational learning
Learning behavior through observation of that behavior in another individual known as the model.
Representativeness
Extent to which characteristics of participants in a study reflect characteristics of whole population.
Schemas
A pocket of information about aspects of the world. Shapes and helps us process information and is stored in our long term memory.
Vicarious reinforcement
Our tendency to repeat or duplicate behaviors which we observe others being rewarded for.
Cognitive control
Works by suppressing inappropriate thoughts or actions that interfere with appropriate ones.
Cooling
Direction ones attention away from ‘hot’ or appealing features of the stimuli, while focusing on the ‘cool’ or cognitive ones.
Delayed gratification
How long someone can resist ah immediate reward in order to receive a comparatively better but delayed one.
Denial
The refusal to accept reality + to act as is a painful event, thought or feeling did not exist.
Displacement
The redirecting of thoughts and feelings and impulses from an object that gives rise to anxiety, to a safer, more acceptable one.
Projection
Placing your undesired impulses e.g. Socially unacceptable thoughts onto someone else.
Alternative hypothesis
Aka experimental hypothesis
A testable statement predicting that there will be a relationship between variables in an investigation.
Correlational analysis
A technique used to investigate a link between two measured variables.
Directional (one tailed) hypothesis
A hypothesis used by researchers if they have an idea of what may happen and so specify it. Predicts direction of a relation between variables.
E.g. “Eating potatoes MAKES people sleep MORE”
Deception
When pps are deliberately misinformed / lied to about aim / procedure of study, it should not happen, but if unavoidable, steps beforehand should be taken to ensure pps are not distressed either at the time or afterwards.
Hypothesis
When an aim is turned into a statement that can be tested.
Informed consent
Having sufficient knowledge about a study to know whether or not you want to agree to participate.
Interval data
The most complex level of measurement, where data is given as points on a scale that has equal gaps between points, e.g. Standardised measures such as tests or scientific scales like cm.
Negative correlation
A relationship between two variables such that an increase in one accompanies a decrease in the other.
No correlation
When there is no relationship between two measured variables.
Non directional (two tailed) hypothesis
A hypothesis chosen by researchers who are unsure of what may happen or of how one variable will be related to another.
E.g. “WHETHER OR NOT there will be a relationship between”… the measured variables, but the actual relationship is not stated.
Null hypothesis
A testable statement that says any difference of correlation between two variables is due to chance, or that there is no relationship between variables.
Nominal data
The most basic level of measurement, where dats is given as totals of named categories e.g. number of pp’s saying ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
Opportunity sampling
Consists of taking the sample from people who are available at the time and so is unlikely to fairly represent population.
Ordinal data
Used when data can be put into an order along a scale, e.g. As rating or likert scales, but there are not equal gaps between these points, and tends to be subjective as is usually based on public opinion.
Positive correlation
A relationship between two variables such that an increase in one accompanies an increase in the other.
Protection from harm
Pp’s should not be put at any greater physical or psychological risk than they would expect in day to day life.
Privacy and confidentiality
Individual’s results and personal information should be kept safely and not be released to anyone outside study.
Research aims
Explain why researchers are carrying out the project, so is their reason for it.
Random sampling
Ensures every member of population has an equal chance of being chosen, so is much more likely to be representative.
Right to withdraw
A pp should be aware that they can remove themselves, and their data from study at any time.
Raw data
Data that psychologists have collected from an investigation, but has not been processed or analysed e.g. Number of yes responses / time taken. Recorded by / in data tables.
Range
A measure of dispersion based on the biggest and smallest values in the data set.
Scatter diagram
A graph used to display data from a correlation all study. Each point on graph represents the pps score on scales for each of the two measured variables.
Snowball sampling
Used if target population is not easy to find / contact, involves asking pps you already have to suggest other pps appropriate for study. Particularly useful in hard to obtain populations e.g. For socially sensitive topics e.g. Drug users.
Self selected sampling
Aka volunteer sampling
Consists of pps becoming part of a study because they volunteer when asked or in response to an advert. Likely to provide similar types of people as all were confident to chose to volunteer.
Standard deviation
A measure of dispersion that calculates average diff between each score in data set and mean, and represents this is same units as mean itself. Bigger values indicate greater dispersion.
Variance
A measure of dispersion that just calculates average diff between each score in the data set and the mean.
Correlation
A relationship between two measured variables
Critical value
A value from a table for the appropriate statistical test to which an observed value is compared. This indicates whether the pattern in the results is significant.
Negative skew
The curve point ends or ‘tail’ will be longer where scores are the smallest. In such casss of a negative skew, the measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) will increase in value.
Observed value
The single number calculated by a statistical test from the scores found (observed) in the study. Compared to a critical value to determine whether the pattern in the results is significant.
Positive skew
Where the curve point ends or ‘tail’ will be longer where a majority of scores are larger. The measures of central tendency will decrease in value. Unlike normal distribution, the values of all three measures of central tendency are the same.
Significance level
The probability that a pattern in the results could have arisen by chance. It is usually set at p < 0.05
Skewed distribution curves
Skewed distribution curves are called skewed when it is not symmetrical at the mean / median / mode point. A skew can be positive or negative.
Type 1 error
A false positive - wrongly stating that something is true when it is not. Occurs when researchers choose to reject the null hypothesis even though it is true.
Type 2 error
A false negative - wrongly stating that something is false when it is not. Occurs when researchers reject their experimental / alternative hypothesis, even though it is true.
