Key Concepts 1 Flashcards
Organization
Goal-oriented social entities, systems of coordinated personal activities, or arenas of power where struggles take place (Daft, Barnard, Maguire & Hardy).
- coordinated
- goal oriented
- external environment
- deliberately structured
Power
The ability of one party to influence another’s actions in ways they wouldn’t otherwise act (coercion, consent, governmentality).
Power as Coercion
Direct control through strict management techniques like surveillance and Taylorism
- punch clocks
Resistance: sabotage/strikes
Power as Consent
Control exerted by shaping people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions through organizational culture, leading to subtle forms of resistance (irony, jokes).
Power as Governmentality
Under neoliberalism, individuals self-manage, and power becomes embedded in all areas of life, making resistance less visible.
Theory
A systematic set of interrelated concepts to explain and predict phenomena (Kerlinger).
- interrelated concepts
- prediciting and explaining phenomena
- specifies relations among variables
Grounded Theory
An iterative research process where key concepts evolve with data gathering, identifying links between theory and real-world evidence.
- inductive
- core theoretical concepts identified
Taylorism
A management approach by Frederick Taylor focused on optimizing worker productivity through task specialization and close supervision.
Normative Control
Organizational control that targets employees’ values and beliefs, encouraging them to internalize the organization’s norms and goals
Ideological Systems
Systems that influence workers’ thoughts and behaviors by promoting specific ideas and values aligned with organizational interests.
Governmentality
Michel Foucault’s concept where individuals govern themselves according to societal norms and expectations, e.g., self-regulating through entrepreneurial self-management.
Despotic to Hegemonic Regimes
A shift from direct, coercive power (despotic) to subtle, cultural influence-based power (hegemonic) through ideological systems.
Bureaucracy
Rational-legal authority in organizations, focusing on control through impersonal rules and hierarchical structures, emphasizing the role of knowledge and rationality over individual leaders.
Scientific Management
Frederick Taylor’s approach, emphasizing organizational design, worker training, and division of labor for efficiency through time-and-motion studies.
Henri Fayol’s Administrative Management
Henri Fayol’s Administrative Management theory focuses on improving organizational efficiency through a structured, top-down approach to management
Hawthorne Effect
Workers’ behavior changes when they know they’re being observed, revealing the role of social and psychological factors in productivity.
Human Relations School
The Human Relations School emphasizes the importance of social factors, employee well-being, and interpersonal relationships in improving productivity and efficiency. It emerged from the Hawthorne Studies and focuses on motivation, group dynamics, and the role of leadership in fostering cooperation and a positive work environment.
Hard vs. Soft Control
Hard control involves formal mechanisms like sanctions and regulations; soft control relies on norms, socialization, and internalized values.
Critical Theory
A critique of power structures in organizations and society, analyzing how power abuse and control are embedded within broader societal relations.
Colonization of the Lifeworld (Habermas)
The process by which organizations shape personal lives through cultural and normative controls, extending beyond formal work boundaries.
Culture as a Paradox
The contradiction between a company’s claim to uniqueness and the often similar nature of its actual practices to competitors.
What Makes Interesting Research
Research that challenges some assumptions of its audience while confirming others, making it engaging (Murray Davis, Bartunek et al.).
Efficiency and Productivity Schools
Frederick Taylor’s Scientific Management, Henri Fayol’s Administrative Management, and Human Relations School, each offering distinct perspectives on organizing work for efficiency.
Situational Management
Robert Mockler’s theory emphasizing the adaptation of management practices to the external environment and specific organizational contexts.
Structure
The set of institutional, legal, and ideological frameworks that shape individual actions. Structures are rigid, exerting control over individuals, and influencing their behavior by dictating societal norms.
Agency
The capacity of individuals to act independently, making their own choices within the constraints of societal structures. Agency allows individuals to potentially challenge and change the structure.
Institutionalization and 4 things it includes
The process by which personal and collective actions become social norms and rigid structures that regulate society. Institutionalization includes:
● Habituation: Personal habits become routine (“That’s how I do it”).
● Reciprocal Typification: Shared practices evolve into group norms (“That’s how we do it”).
● Legitimation: Justifications and explanations for why norms are followed (“That’s why we do it”).
● Objectification: Norms are perceived as natural and unchangeable (“That’s just the way it is”).
Socialization and 3 things it includes
The process by which individuals internalize societal norms and expectations, allowing these structures to influence their behavior and identity. Key components include:
● Imitation of Significant Others: Acting in ways that align with social expectations.
● Generalization: Norms become seen as universal truths.
● Internalization: Norms are adopted into one’s personal identity.
Unintended Consequences
Social actions often lead to outcomes that were not intended by the actors. Once structures are created, they develop a life of their own, often diverging from the original purpose.
Recalcitrant Instrument
The idea that once social structures and organizations are established, they become difficult to change and exert control over individuals, even though they are human-made.
Social Construction of Reality
A theory proposed by Berger and Luckmann, suggesting that reality is socially constructed through human interaction, but once constructed, it becomes detached from those interactions.
Duality of Social Reality
The notion that social reality is both personal (subjective) and institutional (objective), creating a dual system where individuals both create and are constrained by social norms.
Power
The capacity to influence the behavior of others, which can be episodic (observable acts) or systemic (embedded within structures).
Episodic Power
Power that is directly observable and exercised through identifiable acts
Systemic Power
Power that is hidden, entrenched within institutions and ideologies
Three Dimensions of Power
1) First Dimension of Power: Power in decision-making processes, visible in conflicts over choices and authority.
2) Second Dimension of Power: Power that prevents issues from being raised, such as agenda-setting or controlling what is discussed.
3) Third Dimension of Power: Power that shapes preferences, values, and beliefs without overt conflict. This is often systemic and works through socialization and ideological control.
4) Fourth Dimension of Power (Foucault): Power that operates through social norms and disciplines individuals by internalizing expectations, shaping behavior through processes like normalization and disciplinarity.
Four Faces of Power
● Coercion: Direct, observable force to compel action.
● Manipulation: Subtle influence on decision-making (and non decision making)
● Domination: Ideological control embedded in systems.
● Subjectification: The shaping of identities and self-conception through norms.
Four Sites of Power
● Power In Organizations: Internal power dynamics within the organization.
● Power Through Organizations: Organizations as tools to further political goals.
● Power Over Organizations: External control of organizational decisions.
● Power Against Organizations: External challenges to organizational legitimacy.
Normalization
The process by which society defines and enforces “normal” behavior, making it internalized by individuals.
Panopticon
Foucault’s metaphor for a system of control where individuals regulate their behavior because they believe they are being watched, even when they are not.
Role-Based Coordination
In temporary organizations, roles are negotiated and enacted, providing structure and continuity despite the transient nature of work
Temporary Total Institution
Temporary organizations like film sets function as total institutions, where participants are isolated and fully immersed in their roles during the project’s duration
Negotiated Role Enactment
Roles are not fixed but are continually negotiated through interactions, allowing flexibility and coordination in dynamic environments
Symbolic Anthropology
Focuses on culture as a system of symbols, with key figures like Geertz emphasizing the meanings embedded in public symbols and their role in shaping worldviews.
Cultural Ecology
A theoretical approach that explores how cultures adapt to their environmental conditions, emphasizing adaptation over internal cultural dynamics
Structuralism
Lévi-Strauss’ approach that seeks to uncover the underlying binary oppositions and universal structures that shape cultural phenomena
Practice Theory
A theory that emphasizes how human actions (practices) produce and reproduce social systems, focusing on the relationship between individual agency and societal structures
Interest Theory
in the context of organizational studies, posits that individuals act primarily out of self-interest, seeking to achieve material, political, or personal benefits. It suggests that actions within organizations are driven by pragmatic, goal-oriented behavior, where actors make strategic decisions to maximize their own advantages
Hegemonic Masculinity
The dominant form of masculinity that reinforces traditional gender roles, especially in military contexts.
Discursive Resistance Practices (Army Article)
The ways in which resistance is enacted through language and discourse, often reinforcing hegemonic masculinity but also opening up potential for change
Contradictions in Resistance (Army Article)
The simultaneous reinforcement of gender norms and the creation of cracks in those norms, allowing for reflection and potential shifts in hegemonic masculinity
Surveillance
The collection and processing of personal data, identifiable or not, for influencing or managing individuals whose data is gathered
Monitoring vs. Surveillance
● Monitoring is seen by occupational psychologists as a neutral tool aimed at improving efficiency and performance.
● Surveillance, especially in sociological studies, carries dystopian connotations, emphasizing control, power dynamics, and resistance.
Workplace Surveillance (Ball, 2010)
Monitoring employees to maintain productivity, protect trade secrets, and provide evidence for legal disputes or conflicts
Mutual Surveillance
Professionals watch and correct each other (e.g., infection control in hospitals), creating mutual accountability and fostering ethical engagement
Function Creep
Surveillance tools revealing more information than originally intended, such as capturing personal behaviors beyond work-related activities
Anticipatory Conformity (Compliance)
Employees modify their behavior to conform to expectations, knowing they are being watched.
Counter-Surveillance (Synopticism)
Workers use platforms like counter-institutional websites to expose company wrongdoing and organize dissent.
Dual Nature of Surveillance
● Security and Safety: Surveillance used to prevent unacceptable behavior or enhance security.
● Control: Surveillance as a tool to manage and influence behavior and identity.
Centralised Power
Power concentrated in a top-down manner, exemplified by Orwell’s “Big Brother” concept
Panopticon Model (Foucault)
Power operates through self-regulation, where individuals behave as if they are being watched, resulting in self-discipline
Post-Panoptic Power
Modern surveillance moves beyond simple observation to managing employees’ conduct through mobile, adaptable mechanisms
Normalizing Power
Surveillance makes power relations appear natural and acceptable
Rhizomatic Power
Power dispersed across networks without central authority, seen in decentralized movements or digital platforms.
Participatory or Self-Surveillance
Individuals voluntarily sharing personal data, often without realizing the extent of their participation in their own surveillance
Sousveillance
Monitoring of those in power by individuals or groups, such as citizens recording the actions of authorities
Culture of Surveillance
A society where surveillance, participatory surveillance, and sousveillance coexist, transforming control into subtle, integrated forms of power
Algorithmic Bias
Surveillance data sorted into categories, which may result in biased outcomes, often reinforcing stereotypes related to race, gender, or other factors
Power-With
Collaborative power where individuals influence each other, creating collective decision-making processes
Power-Over
Hierarchical power where one party dominates another, typically through coercion
Coercive Power
Direct control through force or threats, often visible in hierarchical relationships
Domination
Control embedded in societal norms and values, shaping beliefs and actions invisibly through culture or ideology
Manipulation
Indirect, subtle control through hidden agendas or networks, often unnoticed by those being influenced
Subjectification
Power shaping identities and behaviors through social norms, producing subjects who internalize societal expectations
Forms of Power in Surveillance (3)
● Centralized Power: Traditional top-down control.
● Dispersed Power: Self-regulation influenced by the possibility of being observed (Panopticon model).
● Rhizomatic Power: Decentralized power operating through networks.
Follet’s Concept of Integration
A process where dialogue encourages exposure to differing perspectives, treating differences as shared problems and working toward solutions benefiting all parties
Iron Law of Oligarchy (Michels, 1915)
Specialization leads to a minority of leaders, resulting in leadership roles being concentrated among a few, even in non-hierarchical organizations
Tyranny of Structurelessness
Without clear organizational structures, power struggles emerge, dominated by those with better social networks
Islands of Autocracy
Organizations that remain hierarchical despite democratic advancements in other societal systems
Fetishization of Profit
The prioritization of returning profit to investors, leading to structural discrimination, environmental destruction, and the perpetuation of inequalities
Karl Polanyi’s “Double Movement” (1944)
The expansion of market economies generates social movements aimed at protecting society from market exploitation
Enspiral Case Study
An example of decentralized governance combining freelancing and social enterprise, focused on meaningful work, autonomy, and participatory decision-making
Spotify’s Tribe Model
● Squads: Small, independent, cross-functional teams.
● Tribes: Groups of squads working on related product areas.
● Chapters & Guilds: Communities of practice across squads and tribes, promoting knowledge-sharing and collaboration.
Three Types of Fantasy (Resch, Hoyer, Steyaert, 2021)
Three types of fantasies that drive emotional investment in collaborative work environments:
● Purpose (Spiritual Fantasy): The desire for meaning and authenticity in work, merging personal identity with professional life.
● Growth (Entrepreneurial Fantasy): A relentless drive for personal and professional development, which can lead to burnout and disillusionment.
● Belonging (Tribal Fantasy): A strong sense of community and emotional connection, but with the risk of over-sharing and emotional exhaustion.
Hard Control
Direct, rule-based control typical of hierarchical organizations
Soft Control
Indirect control through team dynamics, leadership influence, and cultural norms
Normative Control
Behavior shaped through shared organizational values and norms
Neo-Normative Control
Encouraging employees to “be themselves,” while subtly aligning them with organizational goals
Affective Control
Emotional engagement and intrinsic motivation within collaborative communities, which can lead to overwork or burnout
Gripe Sites
Online platforms created by employees to express dissatisfaction with workplace conditions and management, offering a form of counter-surveillance and resistance
Distributive Justice in Surveillance
How surveillance impacts fairness in the distribution of rewards and punishments within an organization
Procedural Justice in Surveillance
Surveillance undermines employees’ participation in decision-making and perceptions of fairness within workplace processes
Social Exclusion in E-Recruitment
The use of data mining in recruitment processes that can exclude marginalized groups or those who do not have internet access, reinforcing social inequalities
Ethical Self-Formation
Based on Foucault’s idea of “care for the self,” it refers to how individuals use surveillance as a tool to develop ethical behavior and new subjectivities
Undecided Space of Ethics
A space created by surveillance where individuals make conscious, reflexive decisions about their actions, allowing for ethical behavior to emerge rather than merely compliance
Mutual Surveillance
Employees or professionals monitor and hold each other accountable, fostering a form of peer regulation and ethical engagement, particularly in high-stakes environments like healthcare
Post-Panoptic Power
A concept extending beyond Foucault’s panopticon, suggesting that modern surveillance manages conduct through flexible, adaptable mechanisms rather than simple observation
Jouissance
The emotional tension between pleasure and pain that workers experience in pursuing communal fantasies, which sustains engagement despite the challenges of overwork and emotional strain
Platform Cooperatives
A form of cooperative organization in which digital platforms are collectively owned and governed by their workers, providing an alternative to traditional hierarchical business models
Codetermination Models
A model of governance, common in Europe, where workers have a formal role in decision-making processes within companies, though they often hold minority power
