KENNEDY: CIVIL RIGHTS Flashcards
1
Q
Freedom Rides 1961
A
- CORE had black and white riders to go on interstate buses to force Kennedy to confront civil rights
- Prompted violence and intimidation and gained huge international attention
- Bobby Kennedy forced ICC to issue instructions to end segregation in interstate travel/facilities
- Kennedy called them ‘unpatriotic sons of bithes’ as the rides stained America’s international reputation, but delivered promises through his brother’s support
2
Q
Albany Campaign
A
- Attempted to challenge segregation in Albany, but it lacked focus as it targeted many businesses
- Police Chief Laurie Pritchett avoided violence/crowded jail cells and the bad media attention that came with it
- No sensationalism, tactics didn’t work
- King’s involvement was unproductive due to black divisions - SNCC resented SCLC involvement, local activists resented outsiders
3
Q
James Meredith
A
- Meredith’s application to the University of Mississippi was rejected and blocked by Governor Barnett
- After obtaining legal aid from NAACP and a Supreme Court deision, Bobby Kennedy sent 500 marshalls to help him enrol
- Two died in the following riots
- Kennedy sent National Guard & US Army regulars
- Meredith graduated in August 1963
4
Q
George Wallace
A
- Example of how supporting segregation was often due to political self-interest
- Defeated in 1958 gubernatorial campaign when he was supported by NAACP and criticised KKK, but won in 1962 after declaring opposition to black voter registration and working closely with the KKK
- Called for ‘segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever’
5
Q
Birmingham 1963
A
- King felt it was America’s worst big city for racism Bull Connor, a segregationist, turned the dogs on demonstrators
- King was arrested, but marches still lacked black support
- 2 May - first children’s protest, picture of police attacking children damaged the US’s reputation
- Birmingham degenerated into chaos as race relations deteriorated; Kennedy announced on national TV a proposal for a civil rights bill on 11 June
6
Q
Progress in the north
A
- While de jure was challenged in the south, de facto remained the same in the north
- A vicious cycle of poverty was maintained through poor housing, poor schooling, and local disenfranchisement
- Nation of Islam gained prominence, as did Malcom X
7
Q
Congressional Opposition
A
- Republicans combined with Southern Democrats to block/weaken civil rights legislation - diluted Eisenwhower’s civil rights bills in 1957/1960, blocked Kennedy’s civile rights bill in 1963
- Many African-Americans were unable to vote, so they responded to a predominantly white electorate that wanted to retain Jim Crow
- A politician that failed to support segregation might not get elected
8
Q
Southern white opposition
A
- Many leading citizens belonged to Citizens Councils or even the KKK - firebombing in St Augustine after some businesses desegregated
- Some businessmen felt segregation damaged business, but feard customer backlash
- Pro-civil rights whites were likely to ve ostracised – Mississippi newspaper owner Hazel Brannon Smith was threatened, boycotted and bombed for her editorials
- White juries were unwilling to convict fellow whites for murdering African-Americans
9
Q
American voters outside the south
A
- Polls show most American voters belived integration should evolve gradually rather than through federal enforcement
- One poll showed civil rights were at the bottom of voter concerns
- Many considered black protests dangerously provocative - 1961 poll showed 63% of Americans opposed the Freedom Rides
10
Q
Law enforcement
A
- Discirination by northern law enforcement officials provoked the black ghetto riots of 1964-8
- Many southern law enforcement officials were willing and determined to maintain segregation
11
Q
March on Washington
A
- On 27 August, over 200,000 marched in Washington in the largest civil rights rally in American history
- Organised by Baynard Rustin & A Philip Randolph, along with the Big Six leaders
- Aim was to further increase pressure on Kennedy over civil rights and highlight economic prejudice
- Kennedy was initialy wary of its potential for violence, but endorsed the march and provided 19,000 troops
- King’s ‘I Have A Dream’ speech took place, and he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964
12
Q
Executive actions
A
- Despite his family’s own experience of WASP discrimination, Kennedy opposed a civil rights bill while a senator
- As it became a more prominent issue, his interest increased - promised to help if elected, saying it was immoral and damaged America’s image
- Did not attempt to get civil rights legislation from congress 1961-2, because his election victory was narrow and he didn’t want to alienate Congress
13
Q
Employment
A
- Made an unprecedented number of black appointments to federal bureaucracy, suc as 40 to tops posts, five federal judges, including Thurgood Marshall; however, 20% of his Deep South judicial appointments were segregationists
- Created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC): had some successes, such as integrating the Lockheed aircraft plant in Georgia, but it exaggerated its successes (one to two employees as an 100% increase)
14
Q
Voting rights
A
- Brought 57 legal cases against illegal violations of black voting rights in the south
- Bobby Kennedy hastened desegragation by threatening Lousiana officals with contempt of court for denying funds to newly desegregated school
- Retreated in Mississippi when influrntial Democrat senators protested
15
Q
Symbolic gestures
A
- Invited more black guests to the White House than any other president, but rejected their requests for legislation
- Was not keen to respond to activism; refused to help SNCC workers attacked by whites in Mississippi
16
Q
SDS and the New Left
A
- There is the beginning of a decline in American self-confidence during JFK’s presidency, which grow in the 60s/70s
- Students for Democratic society (SDS) was established in 1960
- Criticised the conformity of 1950s consumer society, proposing a more participatory democracy wherein the government should be subject to greater scrutiny and accountability
17
Q
Women and change
A
- In 1963, remained in ‘female occupations’ such as nursing, constitutuing 80% of teachers by 10% of principles, and they couldn’t enter financial agreements without a male cosignatory in six states
- SDS approved a pro-women’s rights resolution but there was male contempt for gender equality
- JFK set up the Presidential Commission on the State of Women in 1963
- ERA was introduced in every congessional session between 1923-1970, but rarely made it to the house - believed it would erode women’s legislative protection
18
Q
Growing pressure for social change
A
- Other groups began to campaign for their rights using techniques pioneered by the civil rights movement
- National Indian Youth Council organised fish-ins to assert fishing rights given to theur ancestors but ignored by landowners
- Hispanic rights movement emerged in 1962 with the formation of the United Farm Workers’ union to allow Mexican-American labourers to protest against their working conditions
