Katie Cytology, Basic Genetics & Histology Flashcards
What does anatomy mean?
The study of the structures that form the body
What is Physiology
How parts of the body works.
What is pathology
Study of abnormalities from normal function
What are the 7 characteristics of Life
Metabolism = Sum of all chemical processes in the body creating energy in the form of ATP
Responsiveness = Ability to respond to changes in the environment
Movement = Movement of the whole organism or individual organs cells and the structures inside cells.
Reproduction = Formation of new cells or production of new individual
Growth = increase in size or number
Differentiation = development to a specialised state.
Vital Force/Life Force/QI
What is vital life Force
Energy that enables all living things to self heal, maintain equilibrium or homeostasis and preserve life by adapting to environmental changes.
4 Characteristics of death
Loss of heartbeat
Absence of breathing
Loss of brain function
No vital life force/Life force/Qi
Define Homeostasis
A condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body’s internal environment that is maintained by the body’s own regulatory processes.
It is dynamic and ever changing working within certain narrow limits to ensure optimal body functioning.
What are the 7 main Physiological variables of homeostasis
Core body temperature 36.5 - 37 PH levels 7.35 - 7.45 Blood pressure Water and electrolyte levels Carbon Dioxide CO2 and Oxygen O2 Blood glucose Flow of life force
What are the names of the 3 body fluids
Intracellular = fluid inside the cells Extracellular = fluid outside the cells Interstitial = fluid between the cells
What is fluid in the blood called
Blood Plasma
What is fluid in the blood called
Blood Plasma
What is the function of interstitial fluid
Fluid that moves substances back and forth between it and the blood.
What are the 4 control systems of Homeostasis
Disruptors = change the homeostatic parameter
Detectors = receptors that detect the changes often nerves
Control Centre = determines the limits within which parameters should be maintained. Evaluates input and generates output.
Effectors = structures that receive the output
What is lack of Oxygen called
Hypoxia
What is the function of the hormone EPO
It is the hormone that makes the bone marrow produce more red blood cells.
What is a feedback system
A group of receptors and effectors communicating with their control centre.
Explain a negative feedback system
The output reverses the input.
The effector response decreases the original stimulus maintaining or restoring homeostasis
e.g increasing or decreasing body temperature/blood pressure/glucose
Explain a positive feedback system
Strengthens/amplifies change in one of the body’s controlled conditions. Stimulus progressively increases the response as long as the stimulus is continued.
Examples include - childbirth, milk production, enzyme reactions, blood clotting and immune system
What are the 7 parts of body organisation
Atoms and molecules - chemical level
Cells - smallest living units in the body
Tissues - groups of cells that work together to preform a function
Organs - Groups of tissues working together
Systems - related organs that have a comman function
The organism - All parts of the body together
Vital Force - Energy that creates life.
Name 4 body cavities
Cranial
Thoracic
Abdominal
Pelvic
Describe 5 points of the Cell Theory
All living things are made up of cells and vital life force
Cells are the structural and functional unit of all living things
All cells come from pre-existing cells
Cells contain hereditary information that is passed on through cell division
All energy flow of life (metabolism and life force) occurs within cells.
What is cell memory
Describes the ability of cells to remember experiences which influence the vital force in our cells and body. Vital force is free flowing throughout the body of a healthy person and can become blocked creating the possibility of disease.
Definition of pathophysiology
Study of changes in the way the body works due to disease
What causes stagnation of energy
Caused by many factors such as dietary choices, life style influences, drugs and exposure to harmful substances such as radiation.
what heavy metals accumulate in the body causing damage to cells
Aluminium, Mercury and Lead
What diseases is aluminium toxicity linked to
Alzheimer’s it can cause damage to neurons in the brain and is also a risk factor for some cancers including breast cancer.
Define Oxidative damage
Oxidative damage is an imbalance of free radicals and antioxidants in the body.
It is damage to a structure by a molecule containing oxygen these are known as free radical. They are highly unstable and highly reactive molecules that lack an electron in their atomic structure. These electrons can be donated by antioxidants.
Give an example of antioxidants
Vitamin C, E and beta carotene
What can happen from oxidative damage?
Damages key cell structures and can cause mutations (this is what happens during the development of cancer)
Cell membranes can be damaged by toxic metals such as mercury ie dental fillings.
What is a prokaryote cell?
Bacteria
What is a Eukaryotic Cell
Human Cells/Plants/Fungi
Why is the cell membrane semi permeable
To allow substance movement in and out of cells.
Explain the structure of the cell membrane
Structurally it is Phospholipid bilayer with the lipid tails (fats) on the inside which are hydrophobic (water hating) and phosphate heads on the outside which are hydrophobic (water hating)
The membrane is embedded with trans-membrane proteins
The membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of cells
What is the chemical formula for the following Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Glucose Hydrogen Potassium Chloride
O2 CO2 C6H1206 H+ K+ CL-
What is the function of trans membrane proteins?
Transport of substances in and out of cells including the movement of charged particles such as H+ and larger molecules such as glucose C6H1206
Immunological Identity - Helps immune cells recognise our own cells (stops white blood cells attacking our body cells) which creates autoimmune diseases such as Coeliac’s disease
Act as receptors - recognition sites for hormones etc
What are cell junctions and what are the 2 types and where can they be found?
Cell junctions are the communication between adjacent cell membranes of tightly packed cells.
- Tight junctions - transmembrane proteins fuse cells together to prevent leaking and can be found in the stomach intestines and bladder.
- Gap Junctions - Small fluid filled tunnels between neighboring cells can be found in nerve cells and nerve muscle cells.
What is the Nucleus and what does it control
Contains the bodies genetic information in the form of DNA. It is the brain of the cell and controls all cell functions.
What is the full name of DNA?
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
What is the full name of RNA and what is it’s function?
Ribonucleic Acid which is responsible for protein synthesis
Explain the structure of the Nucleus
Surrounded by a double layered nuclear membrane which separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm. The membrane is continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
It contains nuclear pores for substance movement in and out of the nucleus.
What are prokaryote and Eukaryote cells
Prokaryote are bacteria cells and Eukaryote are human/animal or fungi cells.
In what 5 ways do prokaryote cells differ from Eukaryote cellsKa
Prokaryote cells have no nucleus (DNA located in the Cytoplasm) Eukaryote cells have a membrane bound Nucleus
Prokaryote cells are much smaller than Eukaryote cells
Prokaryote cells are absent of membrane bound organelles, Eukaryote have many
Prokaryote cells have a cell wall - Eukaryote cells do but only in plants and fungi
Prokaryote cells undergo cell division by Binary Fission (rapid mitosis) Eukaryotic cell division involves mitosis
Explain characteristics and functions of the Nucleus list 6 of them
- Sphere shaped Organelle
- It contains genetic information in the form of DNA
- Double layered membrane between Nucleus and Cytoplasm
- It is continuous with rough ER
- It contains a Nucleolus this is where RNA is produced which is essential for protein synthesis
- Contains Nuclear pores to allow movement of substances in and out
What is the Cytoskeleton
Is a network of protein filaments (microtubules and microfilaments) that extend through the Cytosol.
What 3 functions does the Cytoskeleton assist with
- Generates movement of cells e.g white blood cells to migrate to site of an injury. They are the organelles that enable muscle contraction.
- They give the cell structure and support
- Cell division they move cells apart
What organelles produces ATP and what does the abbreviation stand for?
Mitochondria
Adenosine Triphosphate
Where is the Mitochondria located
Located where oxygen enters the cells towards the outside
Describe the structure of Mitochondria
Bean shaped with a double layered membrane with fluid in between. Inner membrane has a series of folds called cristae which produce a vast surface area for chemical reactions.
What cells are thought to contain the most Mitochondria and why.
Muscle cells they use ATP to generate muscle contraction
What is the process called that mitochondria use to create ATP
Aerobic Respiration
What is the equation for aerobic respiration
Glucose + Oxygen > Carbon Dioxide + water + ATP
What is the function of Ribosomes
Essential for protein synthesis
What are the 2 types of Ribosomes and what are their functions
Either free (mobile) in the cytoplasm or bound to rough endoplasmic reticulum (stationary)
Free Ribosomes make protein for inside the cell and the those on the Rough ER make protein for outside the cell.
What is ER and what is the abbreviation
ER stands for Endoplasmic Reticulum it is a network of membranes in the form of flattened sacs. It extends from the nuclear envelope to the cell membrane.
What are the 2 types of ER and their function
Rough ER - continuous with the nuclear membrane studded with Ribosomes that synthesise and transport proteins.
Smooth ER - has a smooth appearance and contains unique enzymes which
Synthesises (produces) lipids and steroid hormones e.g oestrogen
In the liver the enzymes detoxify e.g alcohol and drugs
In muscle releases enzymes for muscle contraction
What is a receptor
A structure that allows substances to attach to them
Describe the structure of a Chromosome
A chromosome consists of a pair of chromatids, joined by a centromere. A chromatid forms from chromatin that tightly coils itself around proteins called histones. These strands of tightly coiled DNA are double-stranded molecules, made up of two chains of nucleotides. Nucleotides consist of three subunits: a sugar, a phosphate group and a base. Likened to a twisted ladder, DNA’s uprights are formed by alternating chains of sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate units. The four different bases bind to the phosphate in a precise order that makes up the genetic code.
What are normal cells called and how many chromosomes do they contain.
Somatic cells 46 Chromosomes (23 pairs)
What are sex cells called and how many chromosomes do they contain
Gametes they have 23 chromosomes
What are the units called that are arranged along side the chromosomes called
Genes
What are Genes and what do they do
Genes are subsections of DNA
They hold information to build and maintain cells and pass on genetic information to offspring.
They code for proteins one gene will code for one specific protein.
Only certain genes will be switched on.
What pair of chromosomes determine the sex
23rd pair
What sex do XY Chromosomes dictate
What sex do XX chromosomes dictate
- Male
2. Female
What happens in Mitosis and what are these cells used for
A full set of chromosomes is duplicated and evenly distributed into 2 identical daughter cells which are pulled apart by protein filaments of the Cytoskeleton
Used for growth and repair
In Mitosis what are the 7 stages of cell reproduction list in the order they happen
Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokenesis
What happens in interphase
Cell grows in size and volume, chromosomes replicate and make 2 copies and prepare for cell division
What happens in Prophase
- Replicated Chromatin becomes tightly coiled
- The 2 Chromatoids are joined at the centomere
- The Mitotic apparatus appears and consists of 2 centroles and a mitotic spindle formed of micro tubules.
- The centroles migate to each side of the cell and the nuclear envelope disappears
What happens in Metaphase
Chromotids align in the centre of the spindle attached by there centomeres
What happens in Anaphase
Centomeres separate and one of each pair of sister chromatoids migates to the ends of the spindles and are then pulled to opposite sides of the cell by shortening of the mitotic spindle
Telophase
Mitotic spindle disappears the Chromosomes uncoil and nuclear envelope appears
Cytokineses
Cytosol organells and plasma membrane split forming 2 identical daughter cells.
What are rates of Mitosis for the following: 1. Epidermis 2. Stomach/Intestines 3. Liver 4. Tastebuds 5 Red blood cells
- 40 days
- 5 days
- 5 months
- 10 days
- 90-120 days
All Gametes have a -xxxxx nucleus which means they contain 23 Chromosomes
Haploid
Somatic Cells have a xxxxxx nucleus?
Diploid
What is Meiosis
The process which sex cells are produced. It produced 4 non identical cells by 2 cell divisions allowing for genetic variability
What is the end result of Mitosis and what is there purpose?
2 new identical diploid somatic cells. Used for body cell growth and repair
What is the end result of Meiosis and what is the purpose
4 unique Haploid reproductive cells. Reproduction making Gametes (eggs and sperm)
Describe a mutation
Mutation is a change in information (DNA sequence)
DNA consists of various sequences of 4 amino acids. A mutation will change this sequence
Can mutations be passed on in gametes or somatic cells
Mutations in Gametes can be passed on to offspring but in somatic cells cannot be inherited
How do mutations occur
Either by chance or induced by mutagenic agents such as smoking, radiation, vaccines or Chemo
What are the 4 Nucleobases
Adenine
Guanine
Thymine
Cytosine
What amino acids pair together
A goes with T
C goes with G
What is phago
To eat
What does pino mean
To drink
What does Epi mean
On top
Thelial
Layer
What are the structures in the neck sometimes mistaken for
Glands they are not they are lymph nodes
What is the job of glands
Structure the secretes a substance such as enzymes hormones etc
Where is epithelial tissue located. Name 7 areas
Blood vessels, heart, lungs, reproductive organs, urinary tract Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT) skin and eyes
What is Epithelial tissue and 6 functions
It is closely packed cells that provide
- Protection
- absorption
- filtration
- excretion
- secretions
- sensory reception
What are the 2 types of epithelial tissue
Covering and glandular epithelium
What are tissues
Groups of cells that work together to perform a function
What are Organs
Groups of tissues working together
What are systems
Related organs that have a conman function
Describe the structure of Epithelial tissue
Closely packed cells arranged in continuous sheets.
Either in a single layer - simple epithelia
Double layered - stratified epithelia
What are the 2 glandular epithelium glands called and what is their function
Exocrine glands - secrete products through ducts onto an epithelial surface e.g sweat glands, sebum, sweat, enzymes milk,
Endocrine glands - secretes hormones directly into the blood. E.g hormones
Name an organ that has both endocrine and exocrine glands and what does it do
Pancreas - exocrine releases enzymes to help us break down foods. Endocrine releases hormones that regulate blood glucose levels
What is the most abundant tissue in the body
Connective tissue
Where do we find connective tissues
Most Bone and cartilage for support. Other types are fluid such as blood
What are the 2 basic elements that make up connective tissue
Extra cellular Matrix and cells widely spaced apart
What is extra cellular matrix formed of
Ground substance and protein fibres
What is ground substance where is it found and what does it do.
Found between cells and helps determine the cells functionality. It consists of water, hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulphate
What are the protein fibres in connective tissue
Collagen and Elastic
Describe the structure of cells in connective tissue and what do they do
Cells are widely spaced and they synthesise protein fibres, fat cells and white blood cells
What is the job of fibroblasts
Secrete protein fibres to make collagen and elastic fibres. Active in repair and healing
Give 4 characteristics of collagen fibres
Made from protein collagen
Fibres are very strong
Found especially in bone ligaments and tendons.
Occur in parallel bundles for extra strength
Give 4 characteristics of Elastic fibres
Made from the protein Elastin
Strong but stretchy to allow tissue to go back to original size
Smaller in diameter to collagen fibres
Found in lung tissue skin and blood vessel walls
What does Genitourinary mean
organs of the reproductive system and urinary system
What are membranes
Flat sheets that cover and line areas of the body
What are the 4 types of membrane
Cutaneous
Mucus
Synovial
Serous
Where is the Mucous membrane found
It is the moist lining for the alimentary, genitourinary, and respiratory tract.
The xxxxxx layer of Mucous membrane contains xxxxxx cells that produce and xxxxx mucus a slimy fluid that? - give 2 examples
Epithelial layer
Goblet Cells
Excrete
- Protects the lining membrane from chemical/mechanical injury e.g stomach
- Traps foreign particles in the respiratory tract before they are swept away by Cilia
What cavities do Serous membranes line
Cavities that do not open to the exterior
Describe the structure of Serous Membrane
It is double layered containing inner (visceral) layer and outer (parietal) layer. Between the layers it is filled with Serous fluid. This allows the organ to glide freely without friction.
What are the names of the 3 Serous membranes in the body and where is each one found.
Pericardium - Surrounding the heart
Pluera - Thoracic cavity and lungs
Peritoneum - Abdominal cavity surrounding abdominal organs and some pelvic organs
Define Synovial membranes
Line cavities of freely flowing joints and contain cells called synovialcytes that secrete the synovial fluid.
Synovial fluid lubricates the movable joint cavities as well as the surrounding joints and tendons that could be injured if bone were to rub together e.g the wrist
What is the skins membrane called
Cutaneous membrane
What does parietal mean
Walls of a cavity
What does visceral refer to
Organs
Explain the role of goblet cells
Produce and secrete mucus a slimy fluid that protects the lining membrane and traps foreign particles in the respiratory tract before being swept away by clila
What is the alimentary tract
tube of the digestive system that goes from the mouth to the anus (covered in Serous membrane)
What is the alimentary tract
tube of the digestive system that goes from the mouth to the anus (covered in Serous membrane)
What are the 8 connective tissue functions
Gives structural framework (bone and Cartilage)
Transports nutrients and waste
Protection for vital organs
Support and interconnection tendons and ligaments etc
Insulation (adipose tissue)
Energy Store
Production of blood and lymphatic cells (adipose tissue, bone marrow)
Defence and repair (blood and lymph)
Name 3 white blood cells and what they do
Macrophages - engulf foreign cells (phagocytes)
Lymphocytes - produce antibodies
Mast cells - release inflammatory chemicals
What are the 3 cells in connective tissue
Fibroblasts
Adipocytes
White blood cells
Function of Fibroblasts
Secrete protein fibres to make collagen and elastic fibres. Active in repair and healing
Function of Adipocytes
Store Triglycerides (Fat)
