Kaplan test Flashcards
Inductive reasoning
makes broad generalizations from specific observations.
Deductive reasoning
starts out with a general statement, or hypothesis, and examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion.
Hypothesis:
a written, declarative statement in the present tense of a prediction of the relationship between two or more variables. Used in quantitative research (not in qualitative)
Null hypothesis
predicts there is no relationship between the variables stated in the hypothesis. Not acknowledging a null hypothesis threatens overall study validity. Careful sample selection using power analysis can help prevent these errors
Null hypothesis: type 1 errors
when the null hypothesis is rejected when it should not be. This is of more concern to researchers than type II errors.
Null hypothesis: type 2 errors
when the null hypothesis is not rejected when it should be, since a relationship between the studied variables does exist.
Quantitative Research:
Grounded upon the scientific method of theory testing and focuses on more
objective evidence.
Quant research consists of
- focused on determining the cause and effect of a phenomena, as researchers believe that events
are not random but can be linked to a specific cause - research is tightly controlled throughout
- uses numbers and statistics to produce evidence
- the people being studied are referred to as “subjects”
- relies on unbiased observation and reliable/valid measurement of variables
Independent and Dependent variables:
cause and effect, the hypothesis
independent variables:
treatment, intervention, or the experimental variable
dependent variables:
outcome, the ruling out of extraneous effects
extraneous variable:
unplanned effect (cause) on an outcome in a research study
Hawthorne effect:
an example of an extraneous variable: refers to the psychological effect when study subjects change their behavior from how they would normally behave because they know they are being watched/observed
Methods for survey research:
interviews and questionnaires. May address knowledge, beliefs,
perceptions, attitudes, feelings, experiences, behaviors, etc. Questions should be clear, simple, ordered from general to specific.
Questionnaire:
can be written (paper) or electronic (online or computer generated)
Questionnaire: pros and cons
o Pros: inexpensive, fast, easy to analyze, allow for anonymity,
o Cons: low response rates, does not allow for clarification
Attitude scales:
Likert scale and Semantic Differential scale are structured, selfreport measures to learn more about the attitudes of the subjects
Likert Scale:
attitude statements of usually 5 to 7 points, ranging from Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree. Scores of all questions are summed to obtain one total score.
Semantic Differential Scale:
Not as commonly used as the Likert scale. Pairs of 2 opposite adjectives are placed on lines with a 7-point scale between them. Subjects mark the point that best represents their attitude.
Quantitative Research Designs: 4 types
*Descriptive studies
*Correlational studies
*Quasi-experimental studies
*Experimental studies
Descriptive studies:
describe characteristics of a topic. Ie: individuals, groups, situations and/or frequency of occurrence of certain phenomena
Correlational studies:
examine relationships between variables or between subjects and the strength and direction of the relationship
Quasi-experimental studies:
examine causality but there is NO random assignment and/or control group
Experimental studies:
examine causality and DO have random assignment of subjects, with both an experimental and a control group
Clinical Trials:
Research studies, experimental in design, which assess the effects of specific
new or revised clinical interventions. Examples include clinical treatments, medical equipment use on clients, medications. In these studies, safety and efficacy of the intervention(s) are studied.
RCTs (randomized controlled trials)
are viewed as the gold standard for evidence based practice decisions
Cross sectional studies:
look at one phenomenon at one point in time and across multiple
separate populations that differ in a clear characteristic such as age, developmental status, etc. Allows for a picture of a phenomenon as it exists in the present.
Longitudinal Prospective Cohort study:
follows subjects over a period of time in the future. Data is collected at two or more different points in time.
Prospective study:
the study of interest is identified in the present and subjects are followed for a given time frame in the future
Cohort study:
a type of longitudinal study in which subjects come from a similar background or were born in the same time period
Retrospective study:
uses past data which has already been collected about events that have already occurred. Record review is a possible source of data. This is a good type of study for exploratory research but not for experimental research.
Pilot study:
smaller scale version of a planned study which identifies and prevents a problem that could occur in the larger study. Testing of methods and procedures of the planned study are done for feasibility and accuracy of the planned larger study. Sample population for the pilot study is similar to that of the larger one.
Double-blind experiment:
neither the subjects nor the researchers know who the control group and who the experimental group is. They are the gold standard for experimental research.
Control group:
group of subjects in an experimental study that is comparable to the
experimental group but does not receive the experimental intervention/treatment or is given an alternate treatment, such as the traditional one. Using a control group provides a baseline to measure the effects of the treatment
The purpose of a control group:
to decrease threats to external validity and to increase confidence that the findings of the study can be generalized to other populations, etc. Also, using a control group helps to decrease both possible researcher bias and participant Hawthorne effect
Sampling:
a process that selects representative units of a population for a study, as it is rarely feasible or necessary to sample the entire populations of interest to obtain accurate and meaningful information
Eligibility criteria:
descriptors of the population which provide a basis for selection of the sample. Include age, gender, socioeconomic status, level of education, religion and ethnicity
Target population:
the entire set of cases whom the researcher would like to make generalizations about. Due to constraints involved with this, the researcher usually uses an accessible population (one that meets the population criteria and is also available)
Random sampling
ensures the sample is representative of the population from which it was chosen and is representative of the population from which it was chosen, allows for generalizability of the findings.
Types of Random sampling include: (First name the 4 and then what each is)
o Simple: random numbers are used to select subjects from the total population
o Stratified: subgroups are selected from the population based on certain characteristics and a representative sample from each subgroup or stratum is then randomly chosen
o Cluster: entire groups are randomly selected in stages and subjects are then randomly selected only from those groups or clusters
o Systematic: predetermined sampling intervals are used to select subjects from the population
Measures of Central Tendency: name 3 then define 3
o Mean: average value of a data set
o Median: midpoint of a data set
o Mode: most frequent value of a data set
4 Levels of Measurement: name then define
o nominal: lowest or least rigorous measurement (ex: gender, blood types)
o ordinal: rank ordering (ex: pain scale)
o interval: consistent distance between ranks (ex: age, thermometer reading)
o ratio: true or natural zero point (ex: volume, speed)
Correlations:
focus on the relationship between variables.
o 0 indicates the absence of a relationship
o +1 is a perfect positive correlation
o -1 is a perfect negative (or inverse relationship)
scatter plot meanings
▪ If data are distributed from lower left to upper right, a positive correlation exists
▪ If data are distributed from upper left to lower right, a negative correlation exists
▪ Dots all over the graph represent that there is no correlation present
Inferential Statistics:
uses data from samples to make inference about a population
t-tests:
examines differences between means of two groups of values
ANOVA:
analysis of variance; compares the differences between two or more groups or sets of values
Chi-square test:
compares sets of frequency or percentage of data
Level of significance:
a statistical measure of the probability of rejecting a null hypothesis when it is true (saying there is a relationship among variables when there is not)
Interrater reliability:
when two or more independent raters use the same tool and are in
agreement regarding their ratings
Internal validity:
the degree to which change in the effect (dependent variable) can be attributed only to the cause (independent variable), and not to extraneous variables
External validity:
the generalizability of the findings of an experimental study to other
people and settings.
Qualitative Research:
focused on discovering and interpreting the subjective meaning of an experience to an individual or group. Participants are referred to as “participants” (not subjects, as in quantitative research). Subjects are not randomly selected and rather, are handpicked for their perceived representation of the population of interest (purposeful sampling)
Types of Qualitative research: name 2 then define the 2
- Phenomenological: describes experiences or phenomena from the point of view of the individuals involved; referred to as “lived experiences”
- Ethnographic: focuses on the understanding of the culture of a group of people. The researcher becomes an active culture
Bracketing:
method used to control for researcher bias to help ensure clear and accurate
observations. Researchers reflect on their personal thoughts, feelings, etc. and set them aside [put them in brackets]
Trustworthiness:
measure of truth and rigor
Trustworthiness: 4 criteria of characteristics
credibility, dependability, confirmability, transferability
Data Saturation:
a point in qualitative studies when there are no new ideas noted in the data
analysis and it is noted that saturation of themes/categories has occurred
Field notes:
reflective notes documented by the researcher’s reflections on strategies and
methodologies used, analysis of observations, and personal feelings
Focus group:
small group of 6-12 people for their similarities to discuss thoughts, feelings, etc. Researchers observe participants for verbal and nonverbal behaviors and interactions.
Report:
written in an informal style. Direct quotes used, which adds to the credibility and trustworthiness. Themes are identified.
Interview:
They are more personal than questionnaires. Can be structured, unstructured, or semistructured.
Interview: pros and cons
o Pros: higher response rate than questionnaire, increased depth of information
o Cons: cost, lack of anonymity, possible interviewer bias
