Kaplan Integrated Test Flashcards
Inductive Reasoning
Makes broad generalizations from specific observations
Deductive Reasoning
Starts with a general statement, hypothesis, and examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion
Hypothesis
A written, declarative statement in the present tense of a prediction of the relationship between 2 or more variables. Used in quantitative research (not qualitative)
Null Hypothesis
Predicts there is no relationship between the variables stated in the hypothesis. Not acknowledging a null hypothesis threatens overall study validity. Careful sample selection using power analysis can help prevent these errors
Type I Error
Null hypothesis is true but is rejected. This is more concerning than Type II errors
Type II Errors
Null hypothesis is not true but is not rejected, since a relationship between the studied variables does exist
Quantitative Research
Grounded upon scientific method, focuses on more objective evidence
Independent Variable
Treatment, intervention, or experimental variable
Dependent Variable
Outcome, the ruling of extraneous effects
Extraneous Variable
Unplanned effect on an outcome in a research study
Hawthorne Effect
An example of an extraneous variable: refers to the psychological effect when subjects change their behavior from how they would normally behave because they know they’re being observed
Methods for Survey Research
Interviews and questionnaires. May address knowledge, beliefs, perceptions, attitudes, feelings, experiences, behaviors, etc. Questions should be clear, simple, ordered from general to specific
Questionnaire
Can be written or electronic. Pros: Inexpensive, fast, easy to analyze, allow for anonymity. Cons: Low response rates, doesn’t allow for clarification
Attitude Scales
Likert scale and Semantic DIfferential scale are structured, self-report measures to learn more about the attitudes of the subjects.
Likert Scale
Attitude statements of usually 5-7 points, ranging from Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree. Scores of all questions are summed to obtain 1 total score
Semantic Differential Scale
Not as commonly used as the Likert Scale. Pairs of 2 opposite adjectives are placed on lines with a 7-point scale between them. Subjects mark the point that best represents their attitude
Descriptive Studies
Describe characteristics of a topic: individuals, groups, situations and/or frequency of occurrence of certain phenomena
Correlational Studies
Examine relationships between variables or between subjects and the strength and direction of the relationship
Quasi-experimental studies
Examine causality but there is NO random assignment and/or control group
Experimental Studies
Examine causality and DO have random assignment of subjects, with both an experimental and a control group
Clinical Trials
Research studies, experimental in design, which assess the effects of specific new or revised clinical interventions.
Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs)
Viewed as the gold standard for evidence-based practice decisions
Cross-sectional Studies
Look at 1 phenomenon at 1 point in time and across multiple separate populations that differ in a clear characteristic such as age, developmental status. Allows for a picture of a phenomenon as it exists in the present. Pros: relatively economical, easy to design/implement, quick to conduct and obtain results. Cons: Don’t capture changes that occur over time
Longitudinal Prospective Cohort Study
Follows subjects over a period of time in the future. Data is collected at 2 or more different times
Prospective Study
Study of interest is identified in the present and subjects are followed for a given time frame in the future
Cohort Study
Type of longitudinal study in which subjects come from similar background or were born in the same time period
Retrospective Study
Uses past data which has already been collected about events that have already occurred. Record review is possible source of data. Good study for exploratory research but not for experimental research
Pilot Study
Smaller scale version of a planned study which identifies and prevents a problem that could occur in the larger study. Testing of methods and procedures of the planned study are done for feasibility and accuracy of the planned larger study. Sample population of the pilot study is similar to that of the larger one.
Double-blind Experiment
Neither the subjects nor the researchers know who the control group and who the experimental groups are. Gold standard for experimental research.
Control group
Group of subjects in an experimental study that is comparable to the experimental group but does not receive the experimental intervention or is given alternative treatment. Provides baseline to measure the effects of the treatment. Purpose: decrease threats to external validity and increase confidence that the findings can be generalized to other populations. Helps decrease researcher bias and Hawthorne Effect
Sampling
Process that selects representative units of a population for a study.
Eligibility Criteria
Descriptors of the population which provides a basis for selection of the sample. Include age, gender, socioeconomic status, education, religion, ethnicity
Target population
Entire set of cases whom the researcher would like to generalize
Random Sampling
Ensures the sample is representative of the population from which it was chosen and is representative of the population from which it was chosen. Allows for generalizability of the findings
Simple Random Sampling
Random numbers used to select subjects from the total population
Stratified Random Sample
Subgroups are selected from the population based on certain characteristics, and representative sample from each subgroup is randomly chosen
Cluster Random Sample
Entire groups are randomly selected in stages, subjects randomly selected only from those groups or clusters
Systematic Random Sample
Predetermined sampling intervals are used to select subjects from the population
Mean
Average value of data set
Median
Midpoint of a data set
Mode
Most frequent value of data set
Nominal
Lowest or least rigorous measurement (gender, blood type)
Ordinal
Rank ordering (pain scale)
Interval
Consistent distance between ranks (thermometer reading)
Ratio
True or natural zero point (volume, speed)
Correlations
Focus on the relationship between variables
0 Correlation
Absence of a relationship
+1 Correlation
Perfect positive correlation
-1 Correlation
Perfect negative relationship (inverse)
Inferential Statistics
Uses data from samples to make inference about a population
T-test
Examines differences between means of 2 groups of values
ANOVA
Analysis of variance, compares the differences between 2 or more groups or set of values
Chi-square test
Compares sets of frequency or percentage of data
Level of Significance
Statistical measure of the probability of rejecting a null hypothesis when it is true. Most common is 0.05 and 0.01, 0.01 and 0.001 are used when the decision to be made has important consequences. Sample size has significant effect on level of significance.
Interrater Reliability
When 2 or more independent raters use the same tool and are in agreement regarding their ratings
Quantitative Validity: Internal Validity
Degree to which change can be attributed to the cause not the extraneous variables
Quantitative Validity: External Validity
Generalizability of the findings of an experimental study to other people and settings
Qualitative Research
Focused on discovering and interpreting subjective meaning of an experience to an individual group. Participants, not subjects, are handpicked for their perceived representation of the population of interest
Phenomenological Quantitative Research
Describes experineces or phenomena from the point of view of the individuals involved, “lived experiences”
Ethnographic Qualitative Research
Focuses on understanding of the culture of a group of people. Researcher becomes active in the culture
Bracketing
Method used to control for researcher bias to help ensure clear and accurate observations. Researchers reflect on personal thoughts, feelings and set them aside
Trustworthiness
Measure of truth and rigor. Credibility, dependability, confirmability, transferability
Data Saturation
Point in qualitative studies when there are no new ideas noted in the data analysis and saturation of themes/categories has occurred
Field Notes
Reflective notes documented by the researcher, on strategies and methodologies used, analysis of observations, personal feelings
Focus Group
Small group of 6-12 people for their similarities to discuss thoughts, feelings. They are observed for verbal and nonverbal behaviors
Report
Written in an informal style. Direct quotes used, adds credibility and trustworthiness. Themes identified.
Interview
More personal than questionnaires, can be structured, unstructured, or semi-structured. Pros: higher response rate than questionnaire, increased depth of info. Cons: cost, lack of anonymity, possible interview bias
