just lets me pass Flashcards
(124 cards)
1
Q
Ancient Greek history can be divided into three main periods
A
Archaic, Classical,
and Hellenistic periods.
2
Q
Archaic Period
A
800-480 BCE
3
Q
Archaic Period, Historical Context:
A
o The Archaic period followed the Greek Dark Ages and preceded the
Classical period.
o It was characterized by the establishment of city-states (poleis) and
urbanisation
o the colonization of the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions.
o Creation of Athens (11-12th century BC) and Sparta (10th century BC)
o Democracy introduced by Solon (638-558)
o Lyric, epic and tragedy emerges in literature
4
Q
Rise of the polis, the fundamental political unit of ancient
Greece.
A
c. 800 BCE
5
Q
Traditional date for the first Olympic Games.
A
776 BCE
6
Q
the earliest records of conflict in ancient Greece
A
Lelantine war (710-650)
7
Q
First and second Messenian Wars
A
743-724, 685-668
8
Q
Draco’s code of laws in Athens, known for their severity.
A
621 BCE
9
Q
Solon’s reforms in Athens, which laid the groundwork for
democracy.
A
594 BCE
10
Q
Draco
A
Known for implementing a harsh legal code in Athens.
11
Q
Solon
A
Athenian lawmaker whose reforms eased debt slavery and laid
foundations for democracy.
12
Q
Peisistratos
A
A tyrant who ruled Athens and promoted cultural and
religious institutions.
13
Q
Warfare (archaic)
A
o The Archaic period saw frequent conflicts between city-states.
o The Lelantine War (c. 710-650 BCE) was a significant early conflict
between Chalcis and Eretria on the island of Euboea.
14
Q
- Persian empire in 500 BC
A
o I
▪ Darius the great (550-486)
▪ Ionian revolt (499-493)
▪ First Persian assault (492)
▪ Battle of marathon (490)
o II
▪ Xerxes (519-465)
▪ Battle of Thermopylae (480)
▪ Burning down Athens (480)
▪ Battle of salamis (480)
▪ Battle of Plataea (479)
▪ Formation of the Delian league
▪ Peace signed in 449 BC
15
Q
Classical Period
A
510-323 BCE
16
Q
Classical Period Historical Context:
A
One of the most important periods for creation of western civilisation
o Marked by the Persian Wars, the rise of Athens and Sparta, and the Peloponnesian War.
o Significant cultural and intellectual developments occurred during this time.
17
Q
Battle of Marathon – Athenian victory over Persian forces.
A
490 BCE
18
Q
Battle of Thermopylae and Battle of Salamis – Key battles in the
Persian Wars.
A
480 BCE
19
Q
Peloponnesian War – A protracted conflict between Athens
and Sparta.
A
431-404 BCE:
20
Q
rise and fall of the spartan empire
A
405-371 BCE
21
Q
rise and fall of Athens
A
371-355 BCE
22
Q
rise of Macedon and Alexander the great
A
359-323 BCE
23
Q
Themistocles
A
Athenian general who played a crucial role in the Battle of
Salamis.
24
Q
Pericles
A
Athenian leader during the Golden Age, promoted arts and
democracy.
25
Socrates
Philosopher known for his contributions to ethics and
epistemology.
26
Thucydides
Historian who chronicled the Peloponnesian War.
27
Leonidas
Spartan king who led Greek forces at the Battle of
Thermopylae.
28
Persian Wars
499-449 BCE
▪ Included battles such as Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, and
Plataea.
▪ Unified Greek city-states against a common enemy, the Persian
Empire.
o Between the wars:
▪ Athens ended up with a powerful fleet after the Persian wars
▪ They formed Delian league to fight Persians
▪ 435 BCE crisis in Epidamnus and democrats had to flee to Corinth
29
Peloponnesian War
431-404 BCE:
▪ A devastating conflict primarily between Athens and Sparta.
▪ Resulted in the eventual defeat of Athens and a shift in power to
Sparta.
▪ 431- archidanian war
▪ Delian league is getting increasingly powerful and in 431 king of
Sparta attacks Attika- peace in Nicias in 421
▪ 415 attack on Syracuse
▪ Athens attack Sicily but suffer defeat
▪ 413 ionian War/ de
▪ Greeks are weak after the Peloponnesian war
▪ Philip 2 of Macedon takes advantage and attacks the peninsula
▪ Philip 2 creates the League of Corinth in 338 and unifies Greeks
against Persians
▪ Alexander succeeds Philip in 336
▪ He deals with uprisings
▪ Write
▪ Alexander’s conquest 332-323
30
Hellenistic Period
323-31 BCE
31
Hellenistic Historical Context:
o Begins with the death of Alexander the Great and ends with the Roman
conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms.
o Marked by the spread of Greek culture across the Mediterranean and
Near East.
o Greek cultural influence and power was at its peak in Europe, north
Africa, and western Asia
o Prosperity and progress in the arts, exploration, literature, theatre,
architecture, music, mathematics, philosophy, and science.
32
Death of Alexander the Great.
323 BCE
33
Diadochi wars
322-301 BCE
34
Battle of Ipsus – Decisive battle among Alexander's successors.
301 BCE
35
Battle of Actium – Octavian's victory over Mark Antony and
Cleopatra, leading to Roman domination.
31 BCE
36
Alexander the Great
Macedonian king who created a vast empire and
spread Greek culture.
37
Ptolemy I Soter
One of Alexander's generals who founded the Ptolemaic
Kingdom in Egypt.
38
Seleucus I Nicator
Founder of the Seleucid Empire, another of
Alexander's generals.
39
Antigonus I Monophthalmus
nother of Alexander's generals,
established the Antigonid dynasty.
40
Wars of the Diadochi
(323-281 BCE):
▪ Series of conflicts among Alexander's generals (the Diadochi) for
control over his empire.
41
Battle of Ipsus
301 BCE
▪ Decisive battle that saw the defeat of Antigonus and the partition
of Alexander’s empire among the remaining Diadochi.
42
Battle of Actium
31 BCE
▪ Naval battle that resulted in Octavian's (later Augustus) victory
over Mark Antony and Cleopatra, leading to the end of the
Hellenistic period and the rise of Roman supremacy.
43
Ancient Rome
experienced a complex history marked by significant wars and periods of
peace, crucial for the development of the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire.
44
Roman Kingdom
(753-509 BC)
o Foundation of Rome by Romulus.
o Rule by a succession of seven kings, culminating in the overthrow of the
monarchy and establishment of the Republic.
45
Roman Republic
(509-27 BC)
o Expansion and Internal Conflicts: Rome expanded through Italy,
forming alliances, and defeating enemies. Internal class struggles
between patricians and plebeians were common.
o Punic Wars: Rome's significant military engagements with Carthage.
o Macedonian Wars: Rome's conflicts in Greece and Macedonia.
o Civil Wars: Internal conflicts leading to the end of the Republic
46
Roman Empire
27 BC-476 AD)
o Augustan Peace (Pax Romana): A period of relative peace and stability
under Emperor Augustus. (27 BC- 235 AD)
o Expansion and Consolidation: Continued expansion, securing borders,
and establishing a stable administrative system.
o Decline: A gradual decline due to internal strife, economic troubles, and
invasions.
* In 395 rome splits into eastern (1453) and western (476) empire
47
Romulus and Remus:
Mythical founders of Rome.
48
Julius Caesar:
General, consul, and dictator pivotal in the demise of the Roman
Republic.
49
Augustus (Octavian):
First emperor of Rome, established the Pax Romana.
50
Hannibal Barca
Carthaginian general who posed a significant threat to Rome
during the Second Punic War.
51
Scipio Africanus:
Roman general who defeated Hannibal.
52
Philip V of Macedon
Opponent in the Macedonian Wars.
53
Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar
Members of the First Triumvirate.
54
Mark Antony and Octavian
Key figures in the Second Triumvirate and
subsequent civil war.
55
Punic Wars
* Carthage
o Carthaginians were Phoenicians- originated around 3000 BC in modern
day Lebanon
o Carthage gets established in IX BCE as a trading port
o Term “Punic” comes from Latin term Poenicus (reference to the origin of
Carthaginians)
56
First Punic War
(264-241 BC)
o Background: Conflict over control of Sicily.
o Key Battles: Battle of Agrigentum, naval battles off Mylae and Ecnomus.
o Outcome: Rome's victory, Carthage cedes Sicily and pays reparations.
o Result of the conflict between Syracuse and Messana. Carthage had
powerful navy, but Rome had powerful land units
o First significant battle- Agrigento (262 BCE) --> Rome won (in Sicily)
o 260 BCE in battle of Lipari islands, roman navy gets defeated (north Sicily)
o Romans innovated and built better navy (Corvus)
o Effects: Carthage pushed out of Sicily
▪ Carthage pays indemnities
▪ Carthage is destabilized
57
Second Punic War
218-201 BC)
o Background: Hannibal's campaign against Rome.
o Key Battles: Battle of Trebia, Battle of Lake Trasimene, Battle of Cannae,
and Battle of Zama.
o Outcome: Rome's victory, Carthage loses its military power, and Spain
becomes a Roman province.
o Hannibal attacks through the alps
o Even though he fought in Italy for more than a decade, he never
succeeded
o His supply lines were stretched
o Romans attack Carthage in 201 BC (Battle of Zama)
o Carthage becomes a client state of Rome
58
Third Punic War
(149-146 BC)
o Background: Rome's final assault on Carthage.
o Key Battles: Siege of Carthage.
o Outcome: Complete destruction of Carthage, territory becomes the
Roman province of Africa.
o In 149 BC to draw Carthage into open conflict, Rome made a series of
escalating demands, one being the surrender of 300 children of the
nobility as hostages and finally ending with the impossible demand that
they emigrate to some inland site at least 10 miles (16 km) from the sea,
making impossible the commerce by sea that drove the city’s economy.
o Rome goes to destroy Carthage completely
o City of Carthage has been burning for 17 days
o Carthaginians were enslaved
59
First Macedonian War
214-205 BC)
o Background: Rome's conflict with Philip V of Macedon during the Second
Punic War.
o Key Battles: Skirmishes, no decisive battles.
o Outcome: Stalemate, peace treaty at Phoenice.
o Philip V of Macedon allied with Hannibal and attacked Illyria in 214 and
212 BCE- without success xd
o Illyria was a roman possession
o In 217 BCE Rome made an alliance with Aetolian league and Pergamon
against Philip
o That stopped him but only for a while
60
Second Macedonian War
(200-197 BC)
o Background: Renewed conflict with Philip V.
o Key Battles: Battle of Cynoscephalae.
o Outcome: Roman victory, Philip V reduced to a client king.
o Philip V made an alliance with Seleucid empire to divide Egypt
o He starts his campaign in the Asia minor against Rhodes and in mainland
Greece in 201 BCE
o Athens and Rhodes being afraid of Philip's ambitions send for help of
Rome
o Rome sends ultimatum to Philip but he ignored it
o Romans start their campaign
o In 197 BCE romans win at Cynoscephalae
o Philip was forced to become roman ally
61
Third Macedonian War
(171-168 BC)
o Background: Conflict with Perseus of Macedon.
o Key Battles: Battle of Pydna.
o Outcome: Roman victory, Macedon divided into four republics.
o Philip V dies in 179 BCE and his son Perseus decide to store Macedon's
power and campaigns against Rome's allies
62
Fourth Macedonian War
(150-148 BC)
o Background: Revolt of Andriscus claiming Macedonian throne.
o Key Battles: Battle of Pydna (148 BC).
o Outcome: Macedon becomes a Roman province.
o Rome finally defeats Macedonians in battle of Pydna in 168 BCE
o In 150 BCE andriscus (self-proclaimed king of Macedonia) seeks to
restore Macedon power but gets defeated in 148 BCE
o In 146 BCE macedonia is formally incorporated into Rome
o Rome destroys city of Corinth in 146 BCE
63
Period of Peace: Pax Romana
* Duration: 27 BC to AD 180.
* Characteristics: Stability, prosperity, and relative peace across the empire.
* Key Figures: Augustus, who initiated this period, and the subsequent Julio-
Claudian and Flavian emperors who maintained it.
64
Middle Ages
also known as the Medieval Period, spans from the fall of the Western
Roman Empire in 476 AD to the beginning of the Renaissance around 1500 AD.
65
Early Middle Ages
(476-1000 AD): Also known as the Dark Ages, this period saw
the rise of the feudal system, the spread of Christianity, and the establishment
of the Frankish Kingdom.
66
High Middle Ages
(1000-1300 AD): Marked by the growth of kingdoms, the
Crusades, the rise of the Holy Roman Empire, and significant economic and
cultural development.
67
Late Middle Ages
(1300-1500 AD): Characterized by the Black Death, the
Hundred Years' War, and the decline of feudalism.
68
Feudal System
* Definition: A hierarchical system of land ownership and duties. Lords granted
land (fiefs) to vassals in exchange for military service.
* Structure:
o King: Top of the hierarchy, owned all land.
o Lords/Nobles: Managed large estates, provided knights to the king.
o Knights: Served lords in military capacity.
o Peasants/Serfs: Worked the land, provided food and services to the
upper classes.
69
Frankish Kingdom
* Origins: Founded by the Merovingian dynasty, with Clovis I unifying the Franks
under Christianity.
* Key Figures:
o Clovis I (466-511): First king to unite the Frankish tribes.
o Charles Martel (686-741): Defeated the Muslims at the Battle of Tours
(732).
o Pepin the Short (714-768): Father of Charlemagne, established the
Carolingian dynasty.
o Charlemagne (742-814): Expanded the kingdom into an empire, crowned
Holy Roman Emperor in 800 AD.
* Main germanic tribes settled in western and southern europe & formed new
states & gradually started to adopt christianity
* Most powerful was the kingdom of franks, founded by merovingian dynasty and
its most known ruler was Clovis I.
* Merovingian rule ended in 752
* Merovingian dynasty was succeeded by peppin the short (father of
Charlamange) son of charles martel
70
Rise of Islam
* Origins: Founded by the Prophet Muhammad in the early 7th century.
* Expansion:
o Early Caliphates: Rashidun (632-661), Umayyad (661-750), and Abbasid
(750-1258) caliphates expanded Islamic rule across the Middle East,
North Africa, and into Spain.
o Battle of Tours (732): Charles Martel halted Muslim expansion into
Western Europe.
* Emergence of islam in arabia during the lifetime of Muhammad (died in 632)
* After his death, islamic forces conquered much of the eastern empire and
persia,starting with syria (643-635), reaching egypt (640-641), persia (637-642),
north africa later in VII century and the iberian peninsula in 711
* By 714 islamic forces controlled much of the peninsula in a region they called Al-
Andalus
71
Heresies
* Definition: Beliefs or opinions contrary to orthodox Christian doctrine.
* Key Movements:
o Arianism: Belief that Christ was created by God and not co-eternal.
o Catharism: Dualist belief that rejected the material world.
o Waldensians: Advocated poverty and criticized the wealth of the Church.
72
Carolingian Empire
* Formation: Established by Charlemagne, who united much of Western Europe.
* Significance:
o Cultural Renaissance: Carolingian Renaissance led to a revival in art,
culture, and learning.
o Treaty of Verdun (843): Divided the empire among Charlemagne’s
grandsons, leading to the formation of modern European states.
73
Holy Roman Empire
* Origins: Established by Otto I in 962 AD, claiming the legacy of Charlemagne.
* Key Figures:
o Otto I (912-973): First Holy Roman Emperor, consolidated power in
Germany.
o Frederick Barbarossa (1122-1190): Attempted to unify the empire,
involved in the Third Crusade.
o Frederick II (1194-1250): Known for his conflicts with the papacy and
attempts to centralize the empire.
74
Crusades
* Definition: Series of religious wars sanctioned by the Latin Church to reclaim
the Holy Land from Muslim control.
* Key Crusades:
o First Crusade (1096-1099): Successfully captured Jerusalem.
o Second Crusade (1147-1149): Failed to recapture Edessa.
o Third Crusade (1189-1192): Led by Richard the Lionheart, Philip II, and
Frederick Barbarossa; resulted in a truce with Saladin.
o Fourth Crusade (1202-1204): Diverted to Constantinople, leading to the
sack of the city.
75
Mongol Empire
* Origins: Founded by Genghis Khan in the early 13th century.
* Expansion:
o Conquests: Expanded across Asia, the Middle East, and into Europe,
creating the largest contiguous empire in history.
o Key Figures:
▪ Genghis Khan (1162-1227): United Mongol tribes and began
extensive conquests.
▪ Kublai Khan (1215-1294): Grandson of Genghis Khan, established
the Yuan dynasty in China.
76
Hundred Years’ War
(1337-1453)
* Actually lasted 116 years 1337-1453 and was last major conflict of the middle
ages
* The war is often connected with creation of modern nation states of france and
especially england
* England lost most of its continental possessions, but from that point was viewed
as equal to france
* The hundred years war was a prelude of war of roses, civil war in england, lasting
from 1455-1487
* Causes: Dynastic disputes over the French throne, territorial conflicts, and
economic factors.
* Phases:
o Edwardian Phase (1337-1360):
▪ Key Events: Battle of Crécy (1346), Battle of Poitiers (1356), Treaty
of Brétigny (1360).
▪ Outcome: English territorial gains in France.
o Caroline Phase (1369-1389):
▪ Key Events: French resurgence under Charles V, recapture of
territories.
▪ Outcome: Stalemate, temporary peace.
o Lancastrian Phase (1415-1453):
▪ Key Events: Battle of Agincourt (1415), Treaty of Troyes (1420),
Siege of Orléans (1428-1429), Battle of Castillon (1453).
▪ Outcome: French victory, end of English claims in France.
77
Battle of Tours
(732): Charles Martel's victory against Muslim forces, halting
Islamic expansion into Western Europe.
78
Battle of Hastings
(1066): William the Conqueror's victory over Harold II, leading
to the Norman Conquest of England.
79
First Crusade
(1096-1099): Capture of Jerusalem, establishment of Crusader
states.
80
Battle of Hattin
(1187): Saladin's victory over Crusader forces, leading to the
recapture of Jerusalem.
81
Battle of Agincourt
(1415): Major English victory during the Hundred Years' War,
led by Henry V.
82
Siege of Constantinople
(1204): Fourth Crusade's capture and sack of
Constantinople, weakening the Byzantine Empire.
83
Early Modern Period
(c. 1500-1800) marked a time of significant change in
Europe, characterized by the Reformation, the discovery of new worlds, the rise
of nation-states, and the development of new technologies. Major events during
this period included the Protestant Reformation, the Thirty Years' War, the
discovery of America, and the introduction of gunpowder in warfare
84
Protestant Reformation in the Holy Roman Empire
Causes: Corruption within the Catholic Church, sale of indulgences, and a
desire for religious and political autonomy.
* Key Figures:
o Martin Luther (1483-1546): German monk who initiated the Reformation
by posting his 95 Theses in 1517.
o John Calvin (1509-1564): Influential reformer whose teachings formed
the basis of Calvinism.
85
Diet of Worms
(1521): Luther's trial where he refused to recant his
teachings.
86
Peace of Augsburg
(1555): Allowed German princes to choose either
Lutheranism or Catholicism for their territories.
* People were looking to limit church influence
* Chruch was viewed as corrupt by selling indulgences
* Martin luther was looking to fix the church, so he declared 95 theses where he
critiqued catholic church
* He said that bible, not the pope is ultimate authority
* Emperor of Roman Empire prohibited following Luther
* Many princes converted to lutheranism and seized church’s lands
87
Thirty Years' War
(1618-1648)
* The Thirty Years' War was a complex conflict fought mainly in the Holy Roman
Empire, involving many European powers.
88
Bohemian Phase
(1618-1625)
o Cause: Defenestration of Prague and the rebellion of Protestant nobles
against the Catholic Habsburg emperor.
o Key Battles: Battle of White Mountain (1620) - decisive Catholic victory.
o Outcome: Reaffirmation of Habsburg power in Bohemia.
89
Danish Phase
(1625-1629)
o Cause: King Christian IV of Denmark's intervention to support Protestant
cause.
o Key Battles: Battle of Lutter (1626) - Catholic victory.
o Outcome: Edict of Restitution (1629) - Habsburg consolidation of
Catholic territories.
90
Swedish Phase
(1630-1635)
o Cause: Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden intervenes to protect Protestants.
o Key Battles: Battle of Breitenfeld (1631) - Protestant victory; Battle of
Lützen (1632) - Gustavus Adolphus killed.
o Outcome: Continued Protestant resistance despite Adolphus' death.
91
French Phase
(1635-1648)
o Cause: France, under Cardinal Richelieu, enters war against Habsburgs
to reduce their power.
o Key Battles: Battle of Rocroi (1643) - French victory.
o Outcome: Treaty of Westphalia (1648) - End of the war, significant
territorial and political shifts in Europe.
92
Discovery of America
Key Figures:
o Christopher Columbus (1451-1506): His 1492 voyage led to the
discovery of the New World.
o Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512): His voyages led to the realization that
the Americas were separate continents.
* Impact:
o Expansion of European colonial empires.
o Economic changes due to the influx of wealth from the Americas.
o Cultural exchanges and the beginning of the transatlantic slave trade.
93
Black Death
Timeline: Mid-14th century (1347-1351).
* Impact:
o Massive population decline (up to 50% in some areas).
o Economic upheaval and labor shortages.
o Social changes, including the decline of serfdom.
94
Capital Rents
Definition: Revenue derived from land and capital investments.
* Importance:
o Key economic concept influencing the transition from feudalism to early
capitalism.
o Affected agricultural production and urbanization.
95
Introduction of Gunpowder
Impact on Warfare:
o Shift from medieval knightly combat to gunpowder-based artillery and
infantry.
o Development of fortifications designed to withstand cannon fire.
96
Peace of Augsburg
(1555)
* Terms: Allowed rulers of the Holy Roman Empire to choose between
Lutheranism and Catholicism for their realms.
* Impact:
o Temporary religious peace in Germany.
o Legitimized the division of Christianity in Europe.
* Who rules the church and who rules the land
97
War of the Three Henrys
(1587-1589)
* Background: Part of the French Wars of Religion, involving Henry III of France,
Henry of Navarre (future Henry IV), and Henry I, Duke of Guise.
* Key Events:
o Assassination of Henry I, Duke of Guise (1588).
o Assassination of Henry III (1589).
* Outcome: Henry of Navarre became Henry IV, ultimately converting to
Catholicism and ending the French Wars of Religion with the Edict of Nantes
(1598).
98
European Wars of Religion
Key Conflicts:
o French Wars of Religion (1562-1598): Series of conflicts between
Catholics and Huguenots (French Protestants).
o Eighty Years' War (1568-1648): Dutch revolt against Spanish rule,
leading to the independence of the Netherlands.
o Anglo-Spanish War (1585-1604): Conflict between Protestant England
and Catholic Spain, highlighted by the defeat of the Spanish Armada in
1588.
99
Battle of White Mountain
(1620): Decisive Catholic victory in the
Bohemian phase.
100
Battle of Breitenfeld
(1631): Major Protestant victory under Gustavus
Adolphus.
101
Battle of Lützen (1632)
Protestant victory but with the death of Gustavus
Adolphus.
102
Battle of Rocroi
(1643): Decisive French victory over Spanish forces
103
Key Events in the Discovery of America
* 1492: Columbus' first voyage, landing in the Bahamas.
* 1507: Publication of the first map using the name "America."
* 1519-1521: Hernán Cortés' conquest of the Aztec Empire.
* 1532: Francisco Pizarro's conquest of the Inca Empire.
104
The Black Death
* 1347-1351: Spread of the plague throughout Europe, with recurring outbreaks.
105
Introduction of Gunpowder
Late 13th Century: Introduction of gunpowder to Europe from China.
* 14th-15th Century: Development of firearms and artillery.
106
The War of the Three Henrys
1587-1589: Final conflict of the French Wars of Religion, resulting in the
ascension of Henry IV.
107
The Age of Absolutism
(c. 1618-1789) was characterized by the centralization of power
in the hands of monarchs, who ruled with absolute authority. This period saw the rise of
powerful states, significant military conflicts, and shifts in the balance of power in
Europe.
108
Peace of Westphalia
(1648)
* Historical Significance: Ended the Thirty Years' War and marked the beginning
of the state system in Europe.
* Terms:
o Recognition of the sovereignty of over 300 German princes.
o Independence of the Dutch Republic and the Swiss Confederacy.
o Territorial gains for France and Sweden.
o Legalization of Calvinism alongside Lutheranism and Catholicism in the
Holy Roman Empire.
* Brought back peace of Habsburg
* Brought sovereignty to states of earlier holy roman empire and made diplomacy
available for them
109
Great Turkish War
1683-1699)
* Key Figures:
o Leopold I (1640-1705): Holy Roman Emperor who led the Christian
coalition.
o John III Sobieski (1629-1696): King of Poland, known for his victory at the
Battle of Vienna.
* Key Battles:
o Battle of Vienna (1683): Decisive victory for the Holy League, turning the
tide against the Ottomans.
* Outcome: Treaty of Karlowitz (1699) - Significant territorial losses for the
Ottoman Empire in favor of the Habsburgs, Poland, and Venice.
110
Nine Years' War
(1688-1697)
* Key Figures:
o Louis XIV (1638-1715): King of France, known as the Sun King.
o William III of Orange (1650-1702): King of England and stadtholder of the
Netherlands.
* Key Battles:
o Battle of Fleurus (1690): French victory.
o Siege of Namur (1695): Allied victory.
* Outcome: Treaty of Ryswick (1697) - Restored the status quo but weakened
French expansion.
* after the Dutch war, Louis was still powerful
* in 1688 he withdraws treaty of Nantes and also takes land east to Rhine River
* Austria, holy roman empire the Dutch republic Spain Britain and savoy form a
league of Augsburg and the war begins
* some historians nine years war is considered the First World War (fights in
Europe and colonies)
* war was inconclusive, the French lost part of their navy Dutch claimed Spanish
Netherlands and Louis recognised British sovereign
Austria, Holy Roman Empire, the Dutch Republic, Spain, Britain Savoy form the League
of Augsburg and the war begins
To some historians NYW is being considered that
War was inconclusive, the French lost part of the navy, Dutch claimed Spanish
Netherlands and Luis recognised William as a rightful king of England
111
War of the Spanish Succession
(1701-1714)
* Key Figures:
o Louis XIV: Supported his grandson Philip V’s claim to the Spanish throne.
o Duke of Marlborough (1650-1722): Key military leader for the Grand
Alliance.
* Key Battles:
o Battle of Blenheim (1704): Decisive victory for the Grand Alliance.
o Battle of Ramillies (1706): Another significant victory for the Allies.
* Outcome: Treaty of Utrecht (1713) - Philip V retained the Spanish throne but
renounced claims to the French throne, significant territorial adjustments in
Europe.
* Last and the largest Louis war
* Charles 2 of Habsburg dies without an heir to the throne. In his will he leaves the
throne to Louis grandson- Philip of Anjou. The other claimant was a Habsburg
Charles of Austria
* league of Augsburg now called grand alliance attacks the French in Spain Italy
Netherlands + colonies
* the war was conducted with 3 treaties: Utrecht 1713 restate
* Effects: Britain is becoming new dominant power in Europe and in the World with
its most powerful navy. Spain loses its possessions in Low Countries and Italy,
king of Spain, Philip V Burbon renounces his rights to the French throne
* The French agree to the protestant succession in England. English also got
Gibraltar from Spain
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Seven Years' War
(1756-1763)
* Key Figures:
o Frederick II the Great (1712-1786): King of Prussia, known for his military
genius.
o William Pitt the Elder (1708-1778): British Prime Minister, instrumental
in British victories.
* Key Battles:
o Battle of Rossbach (1757): Prussian victory.
o Battle of Plassey (1757): British victory in India.
* Outcome: Treaty of Paris (1763) and Treaty of Hubertusburg (1763) - Marked the
end of the war, significant territorial changes, and Britain’s emergence as a
global power.
* SYW 1756-1763
* In 1759 Austria and Russia defeat Prussian forces near Frankfurt nevertheless
they do not push further. This year Britain
* In 1760 Frederick wins with Austria in the battle of Targau
* In 1762 Russian Queen Elizabeth dies and is succeeded by Peter III who
withdrew from the war
* By 1762 Britain attacked Spain and took Havana and Manila
* The end of the war
* War was concluded in two treaties:
* Treaty of Paris – France renounces the
* Treaty of Hubertsburg – status quo ante bellum between Russia, Austria and
Prussia with Silesia belonging to Prussia
* There were almost no changes in Europe’s borders after the war
* British became a sole power in the world
* The French have lost their colonies, which led to sharp decline in their finances
which led to the French Revolution (1789)
* British imposed heavy taxes on North America which sparked the American
Revolution (1772)
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The Sun King and His Wars
* Louis XIV: Embodied the absolute monarch, centralizing power and building the
Palace of Versailles.
* Wars:
o War of Devolution (1667-1668): Attempt to claim the Spanish
Netherlands, ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.
o Franco-Dutch War (1672-1678): Expansion against the Dutch Republic,
ended with the Treaty of Nijmegen.
o War of the League of Augsburg (1688-1697): Known as the Nine Years'
War.
* the best example of absolutist monarch was Louis XIV who succeeded his father
in 1643 and died in 1715
* he was called an absolute monarch as his powers were without limits
* within the formula one king one faith one law will of the monarch was everything
from justice to war and everything in between
* absolutism was possible thanks to corrupting high nobility and church, but also
large standing armies. Louis xiv didn’t need nobility or clergy as much as in the
feudal times
* he was famous for warfare
* campaigns against the Dutch 1672 1678
* nine years war against protestants in Europe 1688-1697
* war of Spanish succession over control of Spanish throne 1701-1714
* burbons became major adversaries of Habsburgs their rivalry shaped the
European balance of power
* during the Dutch war Louis gets British navy to help the French
* he captured parts of Spanish Netherlands, but republic manages to survive
especially thanks to the flooding of some islands
* with glorious revolution in 1688 in Britain James the II (Catholic) was overthrown
and William III Prince of Orange. Now main Dutch adversary of Louis becomes
King of Britain
114
French and Indian War
(1754-1763)
* Context: North American theater of the Seven Years' War.
* Key Figures:
o George Washington (1732-1799): Early military experience.
o James Wolfe (1727-1759): British general known for the capture of
Quebec.
* Key Battles:
o Battle of Fort Necessity (1754): Early French victory.
o Battle of Quebec (1759): Decisive British victory.
* Outcome: British dominance in North America, leading to the Treaty of Paris
(1763).
* The first five years were just defeats, therefore London had to act. William Pitt
convinced Parliament to give him unlimited funds for campaign in North
America. The colonies were promised payments
* In time from 1757 with British naval superiority the French started losing.
Between 1757 and 1760 British took the entirety of French possessions in North
America
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Prussian Absolutism and Militarism
* Frederick II the Great: Modernized the Prussian army and state, leading Prussia
to become a major European power.
* Reforms:
o Centralized administration.
o Promoted religious tolerance and legal reforms.
* 1640 Frederic becomes elector of brandernburg
* during 30 yrs. war his army was made up of mercenaries who were useless
* he decided to grant Junkers the land they held in crowns name for large sums of
money. Once he collected this cash, they started building his own armed forces
* junkers themselves became a source of officer class. Their sons were sent to
military schools, and they were forbidden 5o enter any sovereign service
* retired soldiers became farmers on a royal land which they received for life
* in 1701 he crowns himself king of Prussia
* his son king Frederic Wilhelm 1 continued came to be known as a soldier king as
he always wore a uniform
* he joined directories of war and finance into one general directory. Now the
entire economic life of Prussia was managed of this department
* On his death army was doubled of that of his father 80 000 men from the country
of 2.5 mln people
* frederick 2 the great
* by his time, the army is more powerful than ever. Lutheran ethic of obedience
has now been married to Prussian military discipline
* his troops won astonishing series of victories against Austrians Saxons French
and Russian
116
British Political Liberty
* Development:
o Glorious Revolution (1688): Establishment of constitutional monarchy.
o Bill of Rights (1689): Ensured parliamentary supremacy and individual
rights.
* Significance: Set the foundation for modern democratic governance.
* between Henry 8 and English civil war social composition changed
* the church and the crown lost their power relatively to the rest of society
(puritans)
* puritan opposition was concentrated in the parliament. Where taxation was
refused to the crown for conduct of foreign policy and patronage
* because of Charles 1 decided to rule without the parliament
* For the next 11 years England was a republican puritan commonwealth under
lord protector Oliver Cromwell. Died in 1658 after wars with Dutch and Irish
* Charles 2 was crowned king. He favoured the Church of England. And exclusion
of Catholics and puritans from governmental posts
* after him, his bro James 2 came to power
117
Treaty of Paris
(1763):
o Ended the Seven Years' War.
o Britain gained Canada, Florida, and various territories in India and the
Caribbean.
118
Treaty of Hubertusburg
(1763):
o Ended the conflict between Prussia, Austria, and Saxony.
o Prussia retained Silesia, confirming its status as a major power.
119
Battle of Vienna
(1683): Marked the turning point in the Great Turkish War.
120
Battle of Blenheim
(1704): Key victory in the War of the Spanish Succession.
121
Battle of Quebec
(1759): Decisive moment in the French and Indian War.
122
Battle of Rossbach
(1757): Highlighted Frederick the Great's military prowess.
123
Triangular Trade Pattern (America, Europe, and Africa)
The triangular trade was a system of transatlantic trade in the 16th to 19th centuries,
involving the exchange of goods and enslaved people between Europe, Africa, and the
Americas. This trade pattern had profound economic, social, and political impacts on
the regions involved.
124
Triangular Trade Pattern Key Components
. Europe to Africa
o Goods such as textiles, rum, and manufactured products were exported
from Europe to Africa.
o These goods were traded for enslaved Africans, who were captured and
sold by African rulers and merchants.
14. Africa to the Americas (Middle Passage)
o Enslaved Africans were transported across the Atlantic to the Americas
under brutal conditions.
o This leg of the journey was known as the Middle Passage, characterized
by high mortality rates and inhumane treatment.
15. Americas to Europe
o Raw materials and agricultural products such as sugar, tobacco, cotton,
and coffee were exported from the Americas to Europe.
o These products were often produced on plantations using the labour of
enslaved Africans.
Impact
* Economic: The triangular trade significantly contributed to the wealth of
European nations and facilitated the rise of the Atlantic economy.
* Social: The forced migration and enslavement of millions of Africans had
devastating effects on African societies and contributed to the development of
racially based chattel slavery.
* Political: The wealth generated from the trade influenced political power
dynamics in Europe, Africa, and the Americas, leading to the establishment of
colonial empires and shifting power structures.
