John F. Kennedy - Domestic policies Flashcards
Kennedy’s ‘New Frontier’
Kennedy said that if the challenges of America were met, the ‘New Frontier’ would bring a new American Dream emphasising ‘public interest’ over ‘private comfort of Eisenhowers years’.
In terms of the economy, Kennedy instructed federal agencies to speed up construction projects, and introduced a new housing act that created 420,000 jobs.
The increased minimum wage put $175m into workers pockets, and $180 million unemployment benefits helped 300,000 Americans back on their feet. $200 million spent on welfare benefits to help 750,000 children.
In terms of health, JFK did more than any president. He introduced a Universal Healthcare Bill for the elderly, funding nursing homes and healthcare for migrants. The Social Security Act, 1963 vaccinated millions of children, and gave more attention to children with learning & physical disability. The Food, Drug & Cosmetic Act 1963, tightened federal regulations on Therapeutic drugs.
In Terms of rights, JFK signed the Equal Pay Act in June 1963 allowing 170,000 women to reclaim $85m over the next 10 years. He introduced a Civil Rights Bill 1963, and the Committee of Equal Employment Opportunity CEEO.
The Freedom Rides - civil rights
Spring 1961, CORE pushed black activism forwards by repeating their Journey of Reconciliation. In the South, buses were still segregated despite the Boynton V. Virginia ruling of 1960.
Thirteen bus riders, led by CORE Director James Farmer set out from Washington to New Orleans to test the success of the Supreme Court decision - the riders faced violence and intimidation, and TV images of beaten riders were broadcasted globally.
Robert Kennedy demanded the ICC enforce their own 1955 ruling on desegregated interstate buses, and 60 further rides including 300 riders occurred.
In November 1961, the ICC issued instructions desegregating interstate travel facilities.
Albany campaign - civil rights
SNCC campaigners wanted to challenge segregation in Albany, Georgia after the success of sit-ins . However, their movement lacked focus by not just targeting restaurants but libraries, parks, and bus boycotts too.
To prevent presidential involvement, Police Chief Pritchett instructed officers to police marches fairly, treat King with care, and to contact jails within a 40 mile radius to not crowd African Americans into a single cell.
Pritchett’s tactics frustrated SNCC campaigners leading local groups to invite King - King was arrested when taking part in the march, despite being offered $178 fine
- Pritchett saw potential for media attention and paid of Kings fine and he was released.
Birmingham, Alabama 1963
Albany prompted a much more proactive campaign by the SCLC in the most racist town in the south, Birmingham Alabama in April 1963 .
Marches, sit-ins and boycotts, with children’s protesting took place proposed by James Bevel. General Bulconnor prompted local police to arrest children using clubs and dogs, and the fire service used high pressure fire hoses - these shocking images made front papers across the world.
King was arrested on arrival, and written his ‘letter from Birmingham Jail’, that people have moral responsibility to break unjust laws. Coretta contacted Kennedy’s administration to release King, and on the night Kings motel was bombed, JFK sent 3000 federal troops to Birmingham.
Robert Kennedy sent chief civil rights assistant, Marshall, to negotiate an end agreement and facilities began to desegregate.
James Meredith and ‘Ole Miss’
James Meredith inspired by Kennedys inauguration speech successfully enrolled to the University of Mississipi in October 1962.
Riots followed with 2 people killed, and Robert Kennedy brought 500 Marshalls to maintain order - one third of the marshals and 40 soldiers were injured. Meredith graduated with a political science degree despite abuse.
But in June 1963, Governor of Alabama, Wallace, blocked 2 black students from the university of Alabama after his ‘segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever speech’. The university was already integrated, forcing the Executive into action and JFK federalised the Alabama National Guard to make Wallace step aside.
March on Washington
In August 1963, 250,000 protested for jobs and freedom. King delivered his ‘I have a dream’ speech, dreaming that his 4 kids will ‘live in a nation where they will not be judged by the colour of their skin but by their character’, and to transform the ‘heat of oppression’ into an ‘oasis of freedom and justice’.
MLK’s speech encouraged Kennedy’s passage of the 1963 Civil Rights Bill, forbidding discrimination in hiring, promoting and firing.
Congress and public opinion - opposition to civil rights
Most southern whites remained opposed to civil rights, belonging to WCC’s and the Ku Klux Klan. Whites who supported civil rights were ostracised from society.
Mississippi newspaper owner Brannan Smith recorded how ‘my newspapers were boycotted, banned & burned, my life was threatened, and my boyfriend lost his job’ as a results of her pro civil rights editorials.
White juries refused to convict whites murdering AA’s. NAACP officer Evers was murdered in 1963 in Mississipi. Beckwith, belonging to WCC and KKK was arrested, but 2 juries failed to find him guilty.
Congress diluted Eisenhowers civil rights bill of 1957 and 1960 , and blocked Kennedys 1963 civil rights bill.
One poll in Kennedys years showed civil rights were at the bottom of voters concerns, and a 1961 poll revealed 63% of Americans opposed freedom rides.
Southern politicians & Law enforcement officials - opposition to civil rights
Black Ghetto riots from 1964-68 was provoked by northern law enforcement discrimination as Bulconnor wanted to maintain segregation.
After the disastrous Albany campaign MLK discussed how ‘he ends up saying one thing to us behind closed doors’ and ‘says something else to the press’.
Southern democrats constituted the most conservative group within the party. AA’s were unable to vote, and southern politicians responded to a white electorate who sought to maintain Jim Crow Laws. A politician who supported desegregation was not elected.
George Wallace - opposition to civil rights
Initially, Patterson defeated Wallace in the governors election, who said ‘I was out- niggered by John Patterson’, ‘I will never be out-niggered again’.
In 1962 Wallace ran for governor again, declaring opposition to black voter registration and blaming integration for increased crime and unemployment.
- Wallace won 93.6% of votes, the biggest margin ever.
At his inaugural address in January 1963, he called for ‘segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever’. When Kennedy federalised Alabamas national guard to integrate University of Alabama, Wallace stood defiantly on the steps of the university advertising his racist credentials.
Wallace ran for president in 1968 and won 13.5% of the vote from Deep South states.
employment - Kennedy’s response to the CR movement
Only 48 of the FBI’s 13600 employees were black. JFK appointed blacks to the federal bureaucracy and 5 blacks as federal judges eg. Thurgood Marshall, and 40 to top posts such as White House Press Secretary.
However, 20% of JFK judicial appointments were segregationists.
Kennedy used the Executive to create the EEOC to create equal employment for federal employees and companies with federal contracts eg. Georgia Lockheed aircraft plant. However, the EEOC showed an increase from 1 to 2 black workers as a 100% increase.
voting rights - Kennedy’s response to CR movement
JFK Brought 57 legal cases against southern violation of black voters rights. Bobby threatened Louisiana officials with imprisonment for denying funds to desegregated schools in New Orleans. This sped up desegregation in New Orleans, Memphis & Atlanta.
symbolic gestures - Kennedys response to CR movement
Symbolic gestures were an easy way for JFK to show his commitment to racial equality. Kennedy invited more black guests to the White House. Although rejecting requests for legislation, NAACP leader Wilkins said they were ‘charmed by the manner the had been turned down’.
The Kennedys were not keen to respond to activism, refusing to help SNCC workers attacked by whites in Mississippi, although activists forced a response.
