Jason Flashcards

Question 1

Q

What direct and indirect ways neural activity can be measured

Answer

A

Directly

<ul> <li>AP (Single neruon)</li> <li>Local Field Potentials (Summed activity)</li></ul>

Indirectly

<ul> <li>Metabolic changes</li> <li>Blood flow <ul> <li>Cerebral blood volume</li> </ul> </li> <li>Blood volume <ul> <li>PET/fMRI</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 2

Q

What is the function of fMRI

Answer

A

Localise hemodynamic changes from neural activity.

Question 3

Q

Why is fMRI popular, contrast with other methods

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Non-Invasive <ul> <li>No needles, unlike PET</li> </ul> </li> <li>Enable human studies</li> <li>Focal <ul> <li>High precision, unlike EEG</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 4

Q

What is the physics behind the basic MRI (fast)

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Hydrogen has a single proton which preccesses around an axis</li> <li>RF pulse, aligns parallel/anti-parallel</li> <li>After swtich off, spins back</li></ul>

Question 5

Q

Cognitive processes require energy. Where do we get energy and how does it relate to fMRI

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Cognitive Processes = <ul> <li>ATP =</li> <li>Use oxygen from hemoglobin =</li> <li>Reverse ion influxes underlying synaptic potentials and action potentials</li> </ul> </li> <li>fMRI relies on difference inmagnetic responses between oxyhemoglobinand deoxyhemoglobinblood</li></ul>

Question 6

Q

Oxygenated vs Deoxygenated Blood. Difference in MRI signal

Answer

A

Oxygenated

<ul> <li>Weakly diamagnetic</li> <li>Does not distort magnetic field</li></ul>

Deoxygenated

<ul> <li>Paramagnetic</li> <li>Distorts magnetic field</li></ul>

Question 7

Q

What is the standard practice in analysing BOLD?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Spatial smoothing by 8mm <ul> <li>Allow for group averaging by correspondence across brain</li> </ul> </li> <li>Use general linear model to quantify BOLD changes <ul> <li>Correlation between time course of the BOLD signal change in each voxel of the smoothed images with the measure of cognitive function.</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 8

Q

What is the implication of the BOLD response (thus far)

Answer

A

Cortical Segregation/Modularity

<ul> <li>Explains spatial structure of brain responses</li> <li>'Neo-phrenology'</li></ul>

Question 9

Q

What is the amptitude of BOLD signal correlated with?

Answer

A

Amplitude of the BOLD signal associated with

<ul> <li>Local field potential <ul> <li>Large no. of active neurons responsive together</li> </ul> </li> <li>Increases in gamma-band electrical <ul> <li>EEG</li> </ul> </li> <li>Quite often correlated with spike frequency <ul> <li>Animal Studies</li> </ul> </li> <li>Electrocorticographic (ECoG) at mm accuracy</li></ul>

> Confidence that BOLD is associated with activity

Question 10

Q

What does magnetic suspectibility of blood depend on?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Blood oxygenation, but also depend on</li> <li>Regional cerebral blood volume (CBV) <ul> <li>Not independent</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 11

Q

What are the main limitations of fMRI (together with elaborations)

Answer

A

1.) Mislocalisation of hemodynamics

<ul> <li>Local changes in oxygen use and blood volume are carried downstream <ul> <li>Mislabel brain region</li> </ul> </li> <li>CBV is useful but most still use BOLD</li></ul>

2.) Slow Changes in hemodynamics

<ul> <li>Might not capture true response</li> <li>Precise neural coupling invisible to fMRI</li></ul>

3.) Uncertainity in type of neurons involved

<ul> <li>Positive BOLD signal could be excitation or inhibitory</li></ul>

4.) Direction of causation is unclear

<ul> <li>Separate region co-active, but does not say how it influence one another</li></ul>

5.) Spatial Limitations (localising)

<ul> <li>Vague despite being much better than EEG.</li> <li>Cannot explain layer-dependent activity</li></ul>

6.) Sparse encoding vs population encoding (resolving)

<ul> <li>Spares Encoding: Poor</li> <li>Population Encoding: Good <ul> <li>A BOLD signal driven by a stimulus does not mean that the entire area is used to process that stimulus, or even that class of stimuli</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 12

Q

What are the 3fundamental limitations of fMRI

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Some nerual activity (Magnetic Field) are too small to be localized with fMRI</li> <li>MRI only shows vascular responses to neural activity</li> <li>Conclusions are ambiguous because it could reflect (blood velocity? volume? oxygen?)</li></ul>

Question 13

Q

What are recent advances in fMRI

Answer

A

Multivoxel pattern analysis(Statistical techniques)

<ul> <li>Whole Brain View</li> <li>Does not require spatial smoothing</li></ul>

Voxel encoding and population field mapping(Statistical techniques)

<ul> <li>Functional property of neurons</li> <li> Not possible with group averaging </li></ul>

Hi Resolution (7T) Scanning

<ul> <li>Isolate activity in single cortical column (sub-mm)</li></ul>

Question 14

Q

What are recent advances in structural MRI

Answer

A

<ul> <li>CBV Changes <ul> <li>Allows resolution of the cortical layer</li> </ul> </li> <li>dMRI tractograhy <ul> <li>Connectivity between brain regions using density of fibres <ul> <li>Map of how different brain regions are associated and correlated with one another</li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li></ul>

Movement away from modularity to connectivity

Question 15

Q

What are the methods for intracanial, extracranial (a)electrical recordings and (b) electrical stimulations

Answer

A

Intracranial Recording

<ul> <li>Single cell animal studies</li> <li>ECoG</li></ul>

Extracranial Recording

Intracranial Stimulation

Extracranial Stimulation

Question 16

Q

Extracellular Recordings of Single Neurons: What did anesthetised and awake behaving studies on anmmal tell us? Can we study multiple neurons?

Answer

A

Anaethsized Studies

<ul> <li>Sensory and Motor</li></ul>

Awake behaviour Studies:

<ul> <li>Higher level functions like attention</li></ul>

Mulitple neurons can be studied with electrode arrays

Question 17

Q

What is Local Field Potential. What is it? What are thecons?

Answer

A

LFPs:

<ul> <li>Not related to individual neurons <ul> <li>Measures neural activity up to 3mm from electrode</li> </ul> </li> <li>Use same electrocode as single unit recording</li></ul>

Cons:

<ul> <li>LFPs likely represents summed activity of large numbers of neurones with synchronous input</li> <li>More likely to reflect type cells with dendrites facing in the same direction away from cell body <ul> <li>e.g., pyramidal cells</li> <li>Same type of cells</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 18

Q

ECoG overview. What is it used to clinically

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Uses 2-256 electrocedes in an array placed directly on exposed surface</li> <li>Records LFP (Probably pyramid cells)</li> <li>Used to treat epilepsy by identifying region generating seizures</li> <li>DCES uses the same electrode</li></ul>

Question 19

Q

ECoG Pros as a Research Tol

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Understanding neural function <ul> <li>High spatial and temporal resolution</li> <li>Both single and multi-unit recording</li> </ul> </li> <li>Confirms electrophysiological recordings from animal models</li> <li>Understanding how indirect methods relate to direct neural responses <ul> <li>BOLD poor temporal</li> <li>EEG poor spatial</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 20

Q

ECoG + BOLD Finger Flexion Results. What is the implication?

Answer

A

7T fMRI prior to ECoG in finger flexion

"to what degree does localisation of neural activity from BOLD correspond to ECoG"

Results

<ul> <li>High frequency ECoG (65-95Hz) matches localised BOLD</li> <li>BOLD co-localises rapid neural changes at fine spatial scale (mm scale)</li></ul>

Implications

<ul> <li>Showed that 7T fMRIreliably captures important aspects of neural activity</li></ul>

Question 21

Q

EEG Overview. What are the cons?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Electrical activity measured from large numberof synchronous, aligned neurons</li> <li>Usually recording pyramial neurons (sameas LFP)</li> <li>Best for Gyri,not sulci</li></ul>

Question 22

Q

EEG Pros and Cons

Answer

A

Pros

<ul> <li>Cheap</li> <li>Good Temporal Resolution</li></ul>

Cons

<ul> <li>Poor Spatial Resolution</li> <li>Not good for deep structures <ul> <li> Voltage drops off rapidly with distance, so activity from deep sources is difficult to detect </li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 23

Q

How does EEG move to ERP

Answer

A

x1000 trials + signal averaging

Question 24

Q

DCES Overview andCons

Answer

A

Overview

<ul> <li>Stimulation of Single Neurons <ul> <li>Mostly on awake behaving non-human primates</li> </ul> </li> <li>UsingECoG electrodes to stimulate</li></ul>

Cons

<ul> <li>Clinical patients limit the basic research <ul> <li>Must have epilepsy</li> <li>No choice in electrode location <ul> <li>Gyri;Biased to seizures</li> </ul> </li> <li>Surgery <ul> <li>Expensive</li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 25

Q

tDCS Overview and Aim

Answer

A

Overview

<ul> <li>Passing a weak DC current between electrodes placed on the scalp</li> <li>Extra-cranial</li></ul>

Aim

<ul> <li>Primarily toimprove mental function</li></ul>

Question 26

Q

tDCS vs other techniques

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Does not require medical intervention (Non-invasive)</li> <li>Uses DC to influence brain activity</li> <li>Uses weak current to influence brain activity</li></ul>

Question 27

Q

How does tDCS work

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Small current passed between two electrodes on the scalp</li> <li>Assume that current flows though the brain <ul> <li>Neurons under the anode more easily activated than they otherwise would be <ul> <li>Excitation: Anode</li> <li>Inhibition: Cathode</li> </ul> </li> <li>Not generating action potentials, but changing response of neurons</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 28

Q

tDCS pros and cons

Answer

A

Pros

<ul> <li>Non invasive</li> <li>Cheap to purchase and use</li> <li>Easy to use</li> <li>Safe when using established protocols <ul> <li>Straight forward ethics</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Cons

<ul> <li>Precise mechanisms elusive</li> <li>Difficult to precisely and selectively stimulatea target brain region</li></ul>

Question 29

Q

Does scientific evidence suggest tDCS is effective?What is the criticism (of the scientific evidence)?

Answer

A

Meta-analysis found no reliable effect.

Criticism of meta-analysis

<ul> <li>Not enough studies</li> <li>Hetereogneity of poor designs (gold-rush)</li></ul>

Question 30

Q

What are the difficulties in establishing whether tDCS is effective?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>High prevalence of “adverse” events = strong placebo</li> <li>No active sham control <ul> <li>Participants can tell whether they're in sham or active</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 31

Q

Has the rapid increase in studies contributed to the tDCS confusion?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>High rates of “new” findings biases against verification</li> <li>Gold rush mentality (citations, funding, no replication)</li></ul>

Question 32

Q

Has the way we do science contributed to the confusion tDCS. What are the phenomenas?

Answer

A

1.) File drawer phenomenon

<ul> <li>Publish positive results</li> <li>Ignore negative or non confirmatory results</li></ul>

2.) Forking path phenomenon

<ul> <li>Lack of specific predictions in the absence of a good understanding of how tDCS works</li></ul>

3.) Increase in importance of science communication

<ul> <li>Expectation > Truth with single result</li> <li>Single result can define field if widely promoted</li></ul>

Question 33

Q

What are paradoxical image effects?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Tiny image difference may change emotion and identity</li> <li>Big image difference have no effect on identity</li></ul>

Question 34

Q

What are some models of face-processing

(3 questions we can ask when we process faces)

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Figural <ul> <li>Face / non-face</li> </ul> </li> <li>Semantic <ul> <li>General (Gender)</li> <li>Specific (Familiar)</li> </ul> </li> <li>Learnt/Innate</li></ul>

Question 35

Q

What is viewpoint dependency

Answer

A

Recognition drops with face inversion

Question 36

Q

What is image volatility?

Answer

A

Recognition drops with reversed contrast

Question 37

Q

What isIdentity stability

Answer

A

Caricatured faces are often more identiﬁable than veridical photographs

Question 38

Q

Evidence thatface recognition is consistent across visual arrangements

Answer

A

Recognition

<ul> <li>Occurs in extreme deformation</li> <li>Depend on external features <ul> <li>(e.g. prosopagnosics)</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 39

Q

Behavioural evidence for a specialised face pathway

Answer

A

1.) Face inversion effect

2.) Holistic processing

<ul> <li>The composite effect</li> <li>The whole-part effect</li></ul>

3.) Neuropsychological evidence

<ul> <li>Prosopagnosia</li> <li>Visual object agnostic with intact face-processing: CK</li></ul>

Question 40

Q

Behavioural evidence for face-inversion effect. Upright vs invered

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Configural processing for upright faces</li> <li>Featural processing for inverted faces</li></ul>

Question 41

Q

Behavioural evidence for holistic processing. Composite effect

Answer

A

Composite

<ul> <li>Slow to identify half of a chimeric face aligned with an inconsistent other half-face <ul> <li> Interference from the other parts of the face </li> </ul> </li> <li> Easier to identify the top half-face when it's misaligned with the bottom one than when the two halves are fitted smoothly together </li> <li>Suggestmandatory processing of whole face</li></ul>

Question 42

Q

Behavioural evidence for holistic processing. Part-whole. What does it not occur for?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Better at distinguishing two face parts in the context of a whole face than in isolation</li> <li>Does not occur for controls <ul> <li>inverted</li> <li>scrambled</li> <li>house</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 43

Q

Evidences for expertise in face-inversion

Answer

A

Diamond and Carey (1986)

<ul> <li>Inversion for houses</li> <li>Inversion for landscapes <ul> <li>Not as much as faces, but the statment that "only faces show inversion effect" is not true</li> </ul> </li> <li>Comparative inversion for dog experts (Not novices)</li></ul>

Rossion and Curran (2010)

<ul> <li>Greater inversion effect correlates with self-declared car-expertise</li></ul>

Question 44

Q

Why are greebles good controls?

Answer

A

Face-like properties.

<ul> <li>Small number of parts in common configuration</li> <li>Hard to identify based on single feature</li> <li>Identification is best by using all features and relationships between them</li></ul>

Question 45

Q

Gauthier and Tarr (1997). Results. What does it suggest.

Answer

A

Results

<ul> <li>Experts -Defined as someone who could recognise a Greeble’s “gender”, “family”,"name" <ul> <li>Faster</li> <li>Accurate</li> <li>More sensitive to configural changes (Transformed)</li> <li>RT to upright Greebles slower in the Transformed Configuration relative to the Studied Configuration condition</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Argued for qualitative change in recognition - Understanding the rules of greebles

Question 46

Q

What did Farah (1990) argue in terms of cases of visual agnosia

Answer

A

Argued for two independent recognition systems

<ul> <li>Structural/Part-Based mechanisms <ul> <li>Associated with “normal” object recognition</li> </ul> </li> <li>Holistic mechanisms <ul> <li>Associated with face recognition</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 47

Q

Is there evidence of a double dissociation for Farah (1990)

Answer

A

Separate modules for face and object recognition

(a) Prosopagnosia

<ul> <li>Normal object with poor face recognition</li> <li>Usually damage to fusiform gyrus</li> <li>Pure prosopagnosia is rare</li></ul>

(b) Visual Object Agnosia

<ul> <li>Poor Object with normalface recognition</li> <li>Only CK</li></ul>

Question 48

Q

How do we measure facial recognition

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Before They Were Famous</li> <li>Cambridge Face Memory Test</li> <li>Cambridge Face Perception Test</li></ul>

Question 49

Q

BTWF Test on Facial Recognition. What does correct identification require? Flaw?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>59 pictures of celebrities (as children)</li> <li>Correct identification requires generalization across substantial change in the appearance of the face</li> <li>Flaw <ul> <li>Does depend somewhat on prior exposure</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 50

Q

CFMT on Facial Recognition. Flaw?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>6 male faces <ul> <li>3 trained view <ul> <li>Different perpsectives</li> </ul> </li> <li>3 alt forced choice <ul> <li>Which of this faces have you seen before</li> <li>Recognise picture from non-trained views</li> </ul> </li> <li>4 difficultylevels</li> </ul> </li> <li>Flaw <ul> <li>Might be reliant on memory</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 51

Q

CFPT on Facial Recognition.

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Test images at ¾ view</li> <li>6 frontal non-target faces morphed with target (different %) <ul> <li>Can do for upright and inverted faces</li> </ul> </li> <li>Rank from most to least similar</li></ul>

Question 52

Q

Greeble learning in a prosopagnosic

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Edward <ul> <li>Poor face inversion, no face-inversion effect</li> <li>Normal Greeble recognition performance</li> </ul> </li> <li>Suggests face deficits do not involve brain processes used to acquire Greeble expertise</li></ul>

Question 53

Q

What are some properties of congenital or developmental prosopagnosia. What are 2 notions on face recognition ability.

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Poor facial recognition <ul> <li>Absence of brain damage or other cognitive deficits</li> <li>note: prosopagnosic is usually FFA damage</li> </ul> </li> <li>2%–2.5% population</li></ul>

1.) Healthy/Pathological

2.) Broad (normal) distribution of face recognition ability, with developmental prosopagnosia on lower tail and superrecognisor on upper tail

Question 54

Q

How do superrecognisors display the face-inversion effect. What does it suggest?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Perform well on facial recognition task (CFMT and CFPTwith upright)</li> <li>Larger face inversion effect (CFPT with inverted) <ul> <li>Supports normative idea that inversion effect is not qualitative different processing compared to normals.</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 55

Q

Evidence for face neurons from human adaptation

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Faces show adaptation <ul> <li>Like Neurons</li> </ul> </li> <li>Bistable perception in semi-upright <ul> <li>See one face then the other</li> <li>Suggest neurons adapted to see one face than the otehr</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 56

Q

What are the 3 studies of neural mechanism of face-processing in non-human primates

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Single Cell</li> <li>fMRI</li> <li>Microstimulation</li></ul>

Question 57

Q

Non-Human Primate Study (1): Single Cell Study in face-processing in non-human primates

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Non-human primate has face neurons <ul> <li>Face cells in IT (fusiform gyrus) responded to an intact face</li> <li>Not selective for individual features presented in isolation</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 58

Q

Non-Human Primate Study (2) :fMRI study in face-processing in non-human primates (READING)

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Identified "Face Area" using fMRI <ul> <li>In temporal lobe</li> </ul> </li> <li>Recorded 400 cells in "Face Area" <ul> <li>97% of visual cells responded exclusively to faces.</li> </ul> </li> <li>Apple and clock showed some response (roundness? property of faces?)</li></ul>

Question 59

Q

Non-Human Primate Study (3): Micro-stimulation in face-processing in non-human primates. Methods and Results

Answer

A

Is IT (Fusiform Gyrus) a face perception area?

<ul> <li>Stimulated neurons in IT and influence face/flower perception</li></ul>

Results

1.)Stiimulation

<ul> <li>Especially 50-100ms</li> <li>Higher likelihood to see faces at all levels of noise</li></ul>

No stimulation

<ul> <li>Equal probability to see face/flower</li></ul>

2.)Stimulation effect greatest for face-sensitive cells within IT

Question 60

Q

What are the human physiological evidences for specialised facial pathways

Answer

A

1.) MEG

2.) fMRI

3.) ECoG

4.) Stimulation

Question 61

Q

Human Study (1): MEG Study for face-perception in humans neural.

Answer

A

MEG (Cross of EEG and fMRI)

<ul> <li>Temporal responses for faces consistently higher M170 compared to cars and shoes</li> <li>No difference between novices and experts <ul> <li>Suggesting signal for faces</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 62

Q

Human Study (2): fMRI Study for face-perception in humans neural.

Answer

A

Manipulaed parts and configuration of faces and houses.

FFA

<ul> <li>Faces have bigger respones than houses, hands, two-tone-faces</li> <li>Does not depend on changing spaces or parts <ul> <li>Sensitivity to faces</li> </ul> </li></ul>

LOC (Lateral Occipital)

<ul> <li>Bigger reponse to changes in Parts</li> <li>No difference for faces or house <ul> <li>Insensitive to identity</li> <li>Senstivity to whether 2 images are the same</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 63

Q

Human Study (2.5) fMRI Study for face-perception in humans neural. What happens to bistable stimuli and FFA

Answer

A

For bistable stimuli, the FFA responds more strongly when subjects perceive a face than when they do not

<ul> <li>SuggestsFFA is activated speciﬁcally by whole faces, notby low-level stimulus features that comprise faces</li></ul>

Question 64

Q

What are neural evidence (not greebles) to suggest FFA is related to level of expertise

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Car expert no centre of right FFA (subset of FFA) for bird object</li> <li>Bird expert no centre of right FFA(subset of FFA) for car object</li></ul>

Answer 65

A

They do not have face-like properties

<ul> <li>Similar features arranged in similar configurations</li> <li>Recognition at subordinate level</li> <li>Stimuli for which participants are experts</li></ul>

Answer 66

A

<ul> <li>FFA fMRI response change</li> <li>Part wholeeffect (for upright) <ul> <li>Greeble expert recognition behaviour and physiology consistent with that found for faces</li> </ul> </li> <li>Configural effects not present in novice data</li></ul>

Answer 67

A

Activate the same areas

Answer 68

A

<ul> <li>Single units responded not only to faces, but familiar faces such as Halle Barry</li> <li>Not only face information, but person-identity units</li></ul>

Answer 69

A

<ul> <li>Category-selective response in ventral temporal cortex (VTC)</li> <li>High Frequency Broadband (30-160HZ) [only high] <ul> <li>Strong positive correlation between fMRI and ECoG signal in HFB</li> <li>Spatial coupling was tighter for face-selectivity than house selectivity</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Note: HFB

Answer 70

A

<ul> <li>Left and right FG contained face-selective high-selective HFB <ul> <li>EBS of right FG: Distort face-selective distortions</li> <li>EBS of left FG: Distort non-specific vsual changes (e.g. color)</li> </ul> </li> <li>Stimulation of sites that caused face-related changes (right FG) were more face-selective</li></ul>

Answer 71

A

Universal facial expression hypothesis

<ul> <li>Evolved to recognise emotions for survival</li></ul>

Evidences: Animals

<ul> <li>Similar expressions in closely related species in animals</li></ul>

Evidences: Humans

<ul> <li>Expression evident in deaf and blind people <ul> <li>But blind are less proficient at posing</li> </ul> </li> <li>Babies <ul> <li>Innate or learned early</li> <li>Though different emotions have different timings in learning</li> </ul> </li> <li>Cross-cultural studies <ul> <li>High cross-cultural agreement in judgments of emotions in faces</li> <li>Both literate and preliterate cultures</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 72

A

Guide attention to emotionally relevant information

Answer 73

A

Innate mechanism for detecting anger

Finding the face in the crowd

Target Absent

<ul> <li>Longer RT than Target Present</li></ul>

In both Target Present/Absent

<ul> <li>Angry faces identified consistently faster (Processed first)</li></ul>

Answer 74

A

Some people find an advantage for happy faces

Caveat

<ul> <li>May depend on stimulus set <ul> <li>Larger set size take longer</li> </ul> </li> <li>May depend on feature strength <ul> <li>Whiteness of teeth</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 75

A

Non-holistic processing

1.) Facial Action Coding (FAC)

<ul> <li>Code emotion by looking at the muscle activity that gives rise to these changes in the features</li> <li>Recording movement of muscles and decode</li></ul>

2.) Emotion perception of morphed faces reveals categorical perception

3.) Calder et al. (2000)

<ul> <li>Top half of the face: Anger, fear and sadness</li> <li>Bottom half of face: Happiness and disgust</li> <li>Equally: Surprise</li></ul>

Answer 76

A

Holistic Evidences:

Composite effects

<ul> <li>Mismatching emotions aligned and misaligned. Aligned poorer.</li> <li>(1) Upper Expression <ul> <li>Aligned vs. misaligned (happy faces): slower</li> <li>Aligned vs. misaligned (angry face): faster <ul> <li>Effects disappear with inversion</li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li>(2) Expression judgements for composities unaffected by identity, vice versa. <ul> <li>Evidence for holistic processing in recognition and identificaiton but some independence between emotion and identity</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 77

A

Mixed

Yes

<ul> <li>Canlabel basic facial expression</li> <li>Can decode difficult to categorise emotions</li></ul>

No

<ul> <li>Deficits in facial expression recognition <ul> <li>Suggest using individual features to decode</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 78

A

Composite Task for Prosopagnosics: Weakerholistic processing in Emotions

Match identity and emotions

Results

<ul> <li>Controls shows drop in performance in aligned compared tounaligned <ul> <li>Increased RT in aligned</li> </ul> </li> <li>Prosopagosics smaller drop in aligned compared to unaligned <ul> <li>Less increase in RT in aligned</li> <li>Bigger effect for control suggest prosopagnosics have impaired holistic processing</li> <li>For both identity and expression</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 79

A

Independence - Expression and Identity are separate

Bruce and Young:

<ul> <li>Dedicated route for Expression</li></ul>

Haxby

<ul> <li>Superior Temporal Sulcus (STS) = Expression</li> <li>Ventral Temporal Route (include FFA) = Identity</li></ul>

Answer 80

A

Yes (unlike faces, emotions have a more dynamic network)

Answer 81

A

<ul> <li>Dynamic changes in muscle activity over time for different facial expressions suggest decoding over time</li> <li>Disgust, anger, fear move more quickly.</li></ul>

Answer 82

A

Activation of Amygdala

<ul> <li>120ms - Fast (low-dirty road)</li> <li>170ms - Detailed perception</li> <li>300ms - Conceptual knowledge of emotions <ul> <li>Unlike FFA, processing emotions involve a much larger network</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 83

A

MEG - Response to happy/fear/neutral in identity/emotion task

<ul> <li>90ms <ul> <li>Orbito-frontal response to emotion without attention</li> </ul> </li> <li>170ms <ul> <li>Right-insula response to emotion with attention</li> </ul> </li> <li>220ms <ul> <li>Identity processing</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Thus, emotions are processed subconsciously before identity or even attention

Answer 84

A

Faces vs non-face (gun)threatening stimuli in matching task

<ul> <li>Preferential right amygdala response to faces</li> <li>Implying amygdala playing a role in decoding fearful information in faces</li></ul>

Answer 85

A

<ul> <li>Anger, Disgust, Sadness, Happiness</li> <li>May be responsive to all emotional-relevant information, not just fear</li> <li>Always activated in tasks requiring emotional decision-making</li></ul>

Answer 86

A

<ul> <li>Amygdala responsive to large eye whites in fear (and surprise) expressions</li> <li>Black eye no difference, implicate whiteness of eyes are important</li> <li>Responds more to whole faces <ul> <li>i.e. respondstoeyes, butholistic processing leads to larger responses</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 87

A

Bilateral amygdala lesion. Loss of visual information for danger.

Can

<ul> <li>Perceive fearful tones in voice</li> <li>Perceive body positions</li> <li>Normal startle <ul> <li>Neural pathway independent of the amygdala</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Cannot

<ul> <li>Recognize facial emotion in others (whiteness eyes). Look at mouth instead</li> <li>Lack of natural fear to snakes and spiders</li> <li>Lack ofloss aversion (gambling)</li></ul>

Answer 88

A

<ul> <li>Absence of fixations on the eyes across emotions</li> <li>When instructed <ul> <li>SM decoding moves up to normal</li> <li>Suggests that the amygdala is important for initiating eye movements for emotional decision-making (recognizing fear)</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 89

A

<ul> <li>PTSD</li> <li>Phobias</li> <li>Depression</li> <li>Schizophrenia</li> <li>Autism</li></ul>

Answer 90

A

<ul> <li>Central to who we are (16,000 numbers a day)</li> <li>Basis of Civilization</li> <li>Technological advancement depends on number</li> <li>Number deficits affect people’s opportunities in society</li></ul>

Answer 91

A

Sophisticated use of number may depend on the development of language

<ul> <li>Relationship is not clearly causal</li> <li>Perhaps language just generally enriches/focuses learning</li></ul>

Answer 92

A

<ol> <li>Neuropsychological (Dyslexia vs Dyscalculia)</li> <li>Animals</li> <li>Preverbal Children</li> <li>Cultures with limited language for numbers</li></ol>

Answer 93

A

Numbers: Foundation of Knowledge

Language: Basis of communication

Answer 94

A

Evolutionary Significance

Answer 95

A

<ol> <li>Clever Hans (Horse)</li> <li>Jakob (Raven)</li> <li>Alex (Parrot)</li> <li>Desert Ants</li> <li>Lions</li> <li>Chimps (Ayumi)</li></ol>

Answer 96

A

<ul> <li>Initially thought to be able to do math by hoof stamping (including square roots)</li> <li>But later found he was reading owner's face <ul> <li>Faces, not arithmetic</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 97

A

<ul> <li>Could select a pot with a specific number of dots on the lid (1-7)</li> <li>Trained to open boxes and eat the seeds contained in them until a precise number of seeds had been eaten</li></ul>

Answer 98

A

<ul> <li>Numerical ability in context of langauge <ul> <li>Could squawk "1-6" how many specified colour blocks there are</li> <li> Enumerate total number of objects </li> </ul> </li> <li>Number of “blue” blocks plate surrounded by blocks of other colour</li> <li>Specify colour of largest or smallest object <ul> <li>Suggesting he had sense of greater or less than as well.</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 99

A

<ul> <li>Judge distance by counting steps <ul> <li>Legs are clipped they undershoot the journey</li> <li>Given stilts, the go too far when returning from foraging</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 100

A

Lions decide to attack based on the ratio of their numbers compared to the number of voices in an “intruder” pride

Answer 101

A

<ul> <li>Number tasks that exceed the ability of humans</li> <li>When lengthof visible number was reduced, Ayumni could still perform while the kids performance dropped <ul> <li>Superior performance on this task may reflect additional processesin additionto number</li> <li>VSTM required exceeds the 4-5 items limit of humans</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 102

A

Numeriosity:

Preferential looking task on dot displays that differ.Reflects the novelty

<ol> <li>Babies looked longer at displays that had change in number 2-2 (1.9s) vs 2-3 (2.5s)</li> <li>6mo babies can distinguish between 8 and 16 and 16 and 32 (1:2 ratio)</li></ol>

Arithemetic

<ol> <li>Babies understood 1 + 1 = 2. Stared longer when 3 dolls appeared instead of 2</li></ol>

Answer 103

A

Number Line Task

Method

<ul> <li>Place a vertical line at the location where the above number would appear between the given number range</li></ul>

Result

<ul> <li>Children often overcompensate for the position of the given number</li> <li>Non-linear (Logarithmtic) to linear change</li> <li>Early representation represents ratio differences rather than linear separation</li></ul>

Conclusion

<ul> <li>Movement from logarithmic to linear representation over timemay reflect formal education</li></ul>

Answer 104

A

Similar number line task: Pica (2004)

<ul> <li>Munduruku have words that go up to 5 <ul> <li>Beyond 5reflects the approximate number</li> <li>Smaller numbers are precise, larger numbers are less precise <ul> <li>Progressively smaller intervals</li> <li>Logarithemtic</li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li>Did not use numerals in a counting sequence</li> <li>Did not use numerals to refer to precise quantitites</li></ul>

Answer 105

A

Method

<ul> <li>Taps on wood up to seven times and compared with counters were placed on a mat <ul> <li>Sometimes the number of taps matched the number of counters, sometimes not</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Results

<ul> <li>Children had no words for the numbers four, five, six and seven, yet were perfectly able to hold those amounts in their heads</li> <li>Abstract enough to represent both auditory and visual enumeration.</li></ul>

Answer 106

A

<ul> <li>Identify</li> <li>Order</li> <li>Compare</li></ul>

Numerical quantities

Answer 107

A

<ul> <li>Enumeration <ul> <li>Verbalize precise number</li> <li>Non-Symbolic</li> </ul> </li> <li>Number comparison <ul> <li>Magnitude comparison <ul> <li>Larger or smaller</li> </ul> </li> <li>Does not necessarily require verbalization</li> <li>Non-symbolic/symbolic/cross-modal</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 108

A

Performance Measures

<ul> <li>IV: Random spots/dots</li> <li>DV: Accuracy and RT</li></ul>

Steps

<ul> <li>Symbolic encoding of visual information</li> <li>Accessing that symbolic representation for combining into a total or sum</li></ul>

Answer 109

A

Evidence for 2 counting mechanims for dot enumeration

<ul> <li>"Sibsitising" Number Range <ul> <li>Set Size <4</li> <li>Rapid and Accurate</li> </ul> </li> <li>"Approximate Number System" <ul> <li>Set Size >4</li> <li>Slow And Approximate</li> </ul> </li></ul>

RT curve shows "elbow" at the 4ish number

Answer 110

A

<ol> <li>Symbolic (8+3)</li> <li>Non-Symbolic (Dots)</li> <li>Cross-Modal (8 + Dots)</li></ol>

Answer 111

A

Not necessarily

Answer 112

A

Performance Measures

IV: Non-Symbolic/Symbolic/Cross-Modal

DV: Accuracy and RT

Steps

Compare the magnitude of two regions of visual information, not necessarily verbalized

<ul> <li>Symbolic encoding of visual information</li> <li>Symbolic mapping onto numerical information</li> <li>Accessing that symbolic representation for combining into a total or sum</li></ul>

Answer 113

A

Symbolic

<ul> <li>Number distance effect</li></ul>

Non-Symbolic

<ul> <li>Weber's Ratio</li></ul>

Answer 114

A

Number Distance Effect

Slower RT andLess Accurate for numbers closer in numerical distance

<ul> <li>Suggests that neural mechanisms are ordered in a functional way</li> <li>Supports mental number line</li></ul>

Answer 115

A

Weber's Ratio

<ul> <li>Errors depend on the ratio of the magnitudes</li> <li>Smaller Weber ratio implies Higher sensitivity to ratio differences</li> <li>Weber ratios for numerical similarity are linear on a log scale</li> <li>Imprecise in subsitising range</li></ul>

Answer 116

A

<ul> <li>Linear (width are the same)</li> <li>Similar to log number spacing for children or aboriginal cultures on the number line task</li></ul>

Answer 117

A

Yes, it is correlated with school arithmetic competence.

<ul> <li>Smaller weber's ratio predictive of mathematical ability</li> <li> Children with dyscalculia are less accurate in comparison of two sets of dots compared with age-matched controls </li></ul>

These studies suggest that number comparison involves access to numerical magnitude representations that form the basis of arithmetic

Answer 118

A

<ul> <li>Large individual differences in the data</li> <li>Relationship may be complicated <ul> <li>Easy items may require formal calculation skills</li> <li>Studies of over-practiced indices of maths competence (adding two single digits) result in ceiling performance for youngest children</li> <li>Influence of experience would blur the real relationship</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 119

A

Cross modal of dots and tones.

Answer 120

A

Results

<ul> <li>Cross modal number as accurate as unimodal</li> <li>Little/ No accuracy cost for comparing numerosities across stimulus format or modality</li> <li>But cross-modal is slower than unimodal in general</li></ul>

Conclusion

<ul> <li>Number comparison is a general brain mechanism, not a visual brain mechanism</li> <li>Judgements of approximate number is a due to a representation of number</li></ul>

Answer 121

A

Enumeration

<ul> <li>Counting</li> <li>Eye Movement</li> <li>Attention shift <ul> <li>Increase in RT may be due toshifting attention rather than eyes although people might shift eyes to different regions of subatisable dots</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Comparision

<ul> <li>Can be rapid</li> <li>Precedes eye movement and attention shift</li> <li>However, subsitising limit is close to the point weber's ratio makes discrimination difficult</li></ul>

Answer 122

A

<ol> <li>Intraparietal sulcus (IPS)</li> <li>Lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC)</li></ol>

"Other Areas"

<ul> <li>Superior parietal lobule (SPL)</li> <li>Ventral intraparietal area (VIP)</li></ul>

Answer 123

A

<ul> <li>Parieto-Occipital junction</li> <li>Frontal lobes</li></ul>

Answer 124

A

<ul> <li>Numerical Quantity <ul> <li>Useful to estimate number</li> <li>Compute Exact Number</li> </ul> </li> <li>Proportional Representations <ul> <li>Judgement of relative size</li> <li>Not necessarily symbolic</li> </ul> </li> <li>Symbolic Numbers <ul> <li>Communication</li> <li>Language</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 125

A

Delayed match-to-sample task

Answer 126

A

<ol> <li>Fixation (By food)</li> <li>"Sample" spots flashed</li> <li>Delay</li> <li>50% match/ 50% no match</li> <li>If match, release lever for food</li></ol>

Answer 127

A

<ol> <li>Numerosity tuned neurons abundant in the lateral PFC and IPS</li> <li>Number selective cells are distributed, not clustered</li> <li>Average latencyof IPS neurons shorter than PFC <ul> <li>Responses in IPS precedes PFC</li> <li>Suggest numbers are processed in IPS (Attention) before PFC (control)</li> </ul> </li> <li>Neurons are not specific to a single number, but they have a preferred stimulus tuning</li></ol>

Answer 128

A

Clear evidence of stimulus dependent tuning

<ul> <li>Preferred number tuning</li></ul>

Evident at different times, for different neurons

<ul> <li>Some for sample</li> <li>Some for delay</li></ul>

Responses depend on numerisoity than features

Answer 129

A

Clear evidence of stimulus dependent tuning

<ul> <li>Preferred number tuning</li></ul>

Transient or Sustained

Responses depend on numerisoity than features

Answer 130

A

<ul> <li>Average number tuning shows distance effect <ul> <li>Weber's Fraction</li> </ul> </li> <li>Number tuning is not task dependent <ul> <li>Average tuning is the same for sample and delayed periods</li> </ul> </li> <li>Number tuning of neurons is qualitatively similarto behavioural performance <ul> <li>i.e., poor tuning = poor performance</li> </ul> </li> <li>Bandwidth of behavioural > neuron <ul> <li>At a neuronal level, single neurons perform better than a monkey performs behaviourally</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 131

A

Yes.

<ul> <li>Despite changing feature properties (area, size, density), the number tuning drop off is similar</li> <li> Suggests these neurons were not tuned to properties apart from numerosity </li></ul>

Answer 132

A

<ul> <li>Many neurons showed response in either <ul> <li>Tuning for simultanenous but not sequential</li> <li>Tuning for sequential but not simultaneous</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 133

A

Weber's law

<ul> <li>Numerosity not coded by neurons in an exact manner</li> <li>Imprecision increase in proportion to magnitude</li></ul>

Logarithmic number line

<ul> <li>Symmetric number tuning functions are only obtained after log transformation of the number scale</li> <li>Coconsistent with Fechner’s law, which states that the perceived magnitude is a logarithmic function of stimulus intensity</li> <li>Found up to 30 items for non-human primates</li></ul>

Answer 134

A

No single, isolated cortical region

<ul> <li>Within IPS and PFC, activation do not cluster. <ul> <li>Neurons with object size and other properties intermingled with number tuned neurons in the same vicinity</li> <li>Suggestthat number neurons are part of a more generalised analysis</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 135

A

Task: Compared number tuning and line length tuning

<ul> <li>Some (20%) of anatomicaly mingled IPS neurons encode either line length ratio, numeriosity, or both.</li> <li>Interminged <ul> <li>No one region where it is "line-selective" or "numeriosity-selective"</li> <li>Not clustered together</li> </ul> </li> <li>Proportionals might have evolutionary benefits</li></ul>

Answer 136

A

<ul> <li>Relatively large proportion of PFC neurons respond to symbolic form of number (dots into number) <ul> <li>PFC encodes dots and visual sign as numerical values</li> <li>PFC for abstract associations</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 137

A

Symbolic number distance effect

<ul> <li>Drop-off with increasing numerical distance from preferred numerical value</li> <li>Trial by trial activity of neurons correlated with the monkeys’ performance <ul> <li> Neural responses were reduced when monkeys failed to match the correct number of dots to the learned signs </li> </ul> </li> <li> Suggests that neurons responded to abstract numerical value rather than visual shape or dot pattern </li></ul>

Answer 138

A

Both IPS and PFC non-symbolic

But only PFC symbolic of the IPS-PFC framework is engaged insemantic shape-number associations in symbol-training monkeys

<ul> <li>IPS <ul> <li>Non-Symbolic</li> <li>Does not seem to be associated with symbols (Only 2%) <ul> <li> Quality of neuronal association in the IPS was weak and occurred much later during the trial (could have been feedback). </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li>PFC <ul> <li>Semantic mapping between signs and categories</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 139

A

<ul> <li>Parietal and Frontal Areas</li> <li>Maybe ITG</li> <li>Humans predated Animals. Human studies before animal studies</li></ul>

Answer 140

A

Brain Area:

Symbols

<ul> <li>Culturally learned symbolic notations such as Arabic numerals or spelled-out or spoken number words <ul> <li>Modality does not matter</li> </ul> </li> <li> Parietal activation occurs for an abstract, amodal representation of numbers </li></ul>

Answer 141

A

<ul> <li>Brain Area <ul> <li>IPS</li> </ul> </li> <li>Non-symbolic stimuli <ul> <li>Dots and Tones</li> </ul> </li> <li>Conditions <ul> <li>Attending to dot stimuli: Obligatory processing</li> <li>Passivelyviewing: IPS adaptation to number</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 142

A

Combined symbolic and non-symbolic presentations

IPS and PFC suggest common representation

Answer 143

A

Naache et al. (2001) fMRI adaptation study

<ul> <li>Rapid presentation of repeated/numerically distant numbers after adapting to a number</li></ul>

Results

<ul> <li>IPS of both hemsiphere <ul> <li>Repeated number <ul> <li>Lesser distance effect, BOLD Response reduced</li> </ul> </li> <li>Distant number <ul> <li>Greater distance effect, BOLD Response increased</li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li></ul>

[Symbols = Number Distance Effect]

Answer 144

A

Piazza et al. (2004) fMRI adaptation of dots

<ul> <li>Rapid presentation of repeated/distant dot after adapting to a dot</li> <li> Brief tests at a range of ratios relative to the adaptation numerosity </li></ul>

Results

<ul> <li>Symmetric Gaussian tuning on ratio scale - just like single cells in monkey studies</li> <li>Precision of coding consistent with Weber Fraction <ul> <li>[Dots = Weber]</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 145

A

Piazza et al. (2007): fMRI adaption of dots and numbers:

<ul> <li>Adaptation: 17,18,19 dots with arabic numerial 20 or 50</li></ul>

Results

<ul> <li>Distance effect <ul> <li>fMRI recovery if 19vs 50</li> <li>no fMRI recovery if19 vs 20</li> </ul> </li> <li>Both IPS and PFC</li></ul>

Answer 146

A

Cantlon et al. (2006) fMRI adaptation study on 4 yo

<ul> <li>Changed <ul> <li>object numeriosity or object identity</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Results

<ul> <li>Numeriosity <ul> <li>Right Parietal Cortex</li> </ul> </li> <li>Identity <ul> <li>Occipito-Temporal Cortex</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 147

A

IIzard et al. (2008) Event-related potentials (EEG) from 3 mo

<ul> <li>Presented with a continuous stream of sets of objects</li></ul>

Results

<ul> <li>Numeriosity <ul> <li>Right Parietal Cortex</li> </ul> </li> <li>Identity <ul> <li>Left Occipito-Temporal Cortex</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 148

A

Jacob and Nieder (2009)

<ul> <li>Habituated to a given line length proportion</li> <li>BOLD response larger the more different the ratio</li> <li>Both IPS and PFC</li></ul>

Answer 149

A

Jacob and Nieder (2009)

<ul> <li>Habituated to a given fraction</li></ul>

Results

<ul> <li>BOLD response larger to more different the fraction</li> <li>Fractions are the symbolic version of ratio <ul> <li>Symbolic Number Distance Effect</li> </ul> </li> <li>IPS</li></ul>

Answer 150

A

<ul> <li>Frontal to parietal shift from childhood to adulthood as symbolic processing becomes automatic</li> <li>Prefrontal regions <ul> <li>Essential for nuumbers calculation</li> <li>Related to task difficulty (Formal operations leverages on frontal areas)</li> <li>Superior frontal gyrus involved in complex calculations</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 151

A

Inferior Temporal Gyrus

ECoG high frequency band (65-150Hz):

<ul> <li>Revelead neurons in ITG with a preferential response to visual numerals (not lines, curves, angles) <ul> <li>Additional area for symbols</li> <li>We might have developed a special region for symbols</li> </ul> </li> <li>Not evident in BOLD fMRI due to signal dropout</li> <li>Functional link with lateral parietal cortex (LPC) while doing arithmetic</li></ul>

Answer 152

A

<ul> <li>What: <ul> <li>Specific and Severe disability in learning arithmetic</li> <li>Normal intelligence</li> <li>Normal working memory</li> </ul> </li> <li>Prevalence <ul> <li>5-7% (developmental dyscalculia = developmental dyslexia)</li> </ul> </li> <li>Consequence <ul> <li>More severe than dyslexia</li> </ul> </li> <li>Co-morbility <ul> <li>Occurs with other developmental disorders like ADHD and Reading</li> </ul> </li> <li>Persistence: <ul> <li>Persists into adulthood (Unclear whether it's a delay in ability or deficit)</li> </ul> </li> <li>Heritability <ul> <li>Mathematical abilities have high specific heritability</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 153

A

<ul> <li>Simple arithmetic</li> <li>Deficit for even the most basic representation of numerosities <ul> <li>Enumeration and Number Comparison</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 154

A

<ul> <li>Reduced grey matter in left IPS adoloscent</li> <li>Reduced grey matter in right IPS 9yo</li> <li>Reduced probability of connections from right fusiform gyrus to other parts of the brain, including the parietal lobes <ul> <li>Evidence is inconsistent</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Answer 155

A

<ul> <li>Huge individual differences <ul> <li>Could be over/under activation</li> </ul> </li> <li>Unclear</li></ul>

Answer 156

A

Teaching

<ul> <li>1:1 cognitive tutoring improved performance forchildren with mathematical learning disabilities</li> <li>Tutoring reduced overactivation in areas, normalising brain activity</li></ul>

Neuroplasticity

<ul> <li>Recent studies via. direct stimulaton suggest usefulness</li></ul>

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